A New Concise Course on Linguistics 专八语言学.ppt

ANewConciseCourseonLinguisticsforStudentsofEnglish LectureNotesby SuXiaojun Introduction Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage Linguisticsvs TraditionalGrammarLinguisticsisdescriptive notprescriptive Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary notthewritten LinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin basedframework WhatIsLanguage Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication 5designfeaturesoflanguage Arbitrariness Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds Productivity creativity Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers Duality Thesystemoflanguageconsistsoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevels Displacement Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker Culturaltransmission Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning ratherthanbyinstinct Phonology Phonetics thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage Phonology thestudyofthesoundsystemoflanguage establishanddescribephonemesofalanguage howsoundsareaffectedbythecombinationofwords theinvestigationofintonationpatterns Phonetics Articulatoryphonetics studiesthehumanspeechorgansandthewayinwhichthespeechsoundsareproduced Acousticphonetics dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds Auditoryphonetics thestudyoftheperceptionofsoundsbythehumanear TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetBroadtranscription phonetictranscriptionwithoutdiacritics Narrowtranscription phonetictranscriptionwithdiacritics Diacritics symbolsusedtoshowdetailedarticulatoryfeatures 3MajorArticulatoryVariables Voicing Nasality AspirationClassificationofEnglishconsonants Manner 方法 ofarticulation stops plosives 塞音 fricatives 摩擦音 affricates 塞擦音 liquids 流音 nasals 鼻音 glides 音渡 Place 部位 ofarticulation bilabial 双唇音 labiodental 唇齿音 dental 齿音 alveolar 齿龈音 palatal 腭音 velar 软腭音 glottal 喉音 ClassificationofVowels frontvowels centralvowels backvowels roundedvowels unroundedvowels closevowels semi closevowels semi openvowels openvowels Phonology Phoneme aphonologicalunit aunitthatisofdistinctivevalue candistinguishwords anabstractunit Allophone phones 单音 thatcanrepresentaphoneme Distinctivefeatures thefeaturesthataphonemehasandthatdistinguishitfromotherphonemes phonemiccontrast complementarydistribution minimalpair Phonemiccontrast twodistinctivephonemesformaphonemiccontrast Complementarydistribution allophonesareincomplementarydistribution Minimalpair twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring SomePhonologicalRules Sequentialrules rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsounds e g consonantclusteratthebeginningofaword s p t k l r w Assimilationrule assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby copying afeatureofasequentialphoneme e g input bilabial im Deletionrule asoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented e g sign design signature designation Morphology Morpheme themostbasicelementofmeaning e g un rely able ityfreemorpheme boundmorphemederivation inflection theformationofnewwordsbyaddingaffixestootherwordsormorphemes 词性可变可不变 nonsmoker ex wife booklet disobey tallish theprocessofaddinganaffixtoawordorchangingitinsomeotherwayaccordingtotherulesofthegrammarofalanguage 词性不变 Syntax Syntax abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences Word levelCategories Majorlexicalcategories playaveryimportantroleinsentenceformation Oftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt Majorlexicalcategories noun N verb V Adjective A preposition P Minorlexicalcategories Determiner Det e g a the this those Degreeword Deg e g quite very more so Qualifier Qual e g often always seldom almost auxiliary Aux e g must should can might conjunction Con e g and but or PhraseCategories Syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrases thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt Phrasalcategories NP VP AP PP Phrasescanconsistofjustoneword PhraseStructureRule Phrasestructurerule grammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase NP Det N PP VP Qual V NP AP Deg A PP PP Deg P NP XPrule Head 中心成分 thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed Specifiers 标志成分 thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads Complements 补足成分 thewordsontherightsideoftheheads TheXPrule XP specifier X complement XstandsfortheheadN V AorP X BarTheory X bartheoryisacomponentoflinguistictheorywhichattemptstoidentifysyntacticfeaturescommontoalllanguages Thetheoryclaimsthattherearecertainstructuralsimilaritiesamongallphrasalcategoriesofalllanguages TheletterXisusedtosignifyanarbitrarylexicalcategoryfortheheadofthephrase X BarTheory TheintermediatelevelformedbytheheadandthecomplementbetweenwordlevelandphraselevelisrepresentedbythesymbolX XP Specifier X X X complement e g ateacherofhighmoralprinciplesastudentwithlonghair astudentofphysics Surfacestructure Deepstructure Transformations auxiliarymovement e g Willthetrainarrive Doinsertion e g Dobirdsfly WhMovement e g Whowonthegame Deepstructure thelevelofsyntacticstructureformedbytheXPrule Surfacestructure thefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations e g Heiseagertoplease Heiseasytoplease Theshootingofthehunterswasterrible Visitingrelativescanbeanuisance Semantics Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning LexicalmeaningSense relatestothesystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelements Reference dealswithrelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon linguisticworldofexperience MajorSenseRelations SynonymyPolysemyHomonymy homophone night knight homograph bow tear completehomonyms fast Hyponymy superordinate hyponym co hyponymsAntonymy Synonymy thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning Dialectalsynonyms e g lift elevator Stylisticsynonyms e g daddy father Synonymsdifferinginemotive evaluativemeaning e g statesman politician Collocationalsynonyms accuse charge rancid sour Semanticallydifferentsynonyms amaze confusion bewilderment astound difficultyinbelieving AntonymyGradableantonyms old young hot cold Complementaryantonyms married single male female Relationalopposites husband wife teacher student fiance fiancee own belongto Componentialanalysis Themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningfulcomponentscalledsemanticfeatures man HUMAN ADULT MALE PredicationAnalysis述谓结构分析 AwaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyG Leech Apredicationconsistsofarguments 变元 logicalparticipant andpredicates 谓词 somethingsaidaboutanargument Thefollowingsentencescontainthesamepredication Tomsmokes Tomissmoking Tomhasbeensmoking Tom smoke DoesTomsmoke Tomdoesnotsmoke Pragmatics Pragmatics thestudyofhowspeakersusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication Context constitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral knowledgeaboutthespecificsituationandknowledgeabouteachother Sentencemeaningvs utterancemeaning Sentencemeaning abstract context independentUtterancemeaning contextdependent theproductofsentencemeaningandcontext e g Mybagisheavy SpeechActTheory OldModel Constatives 述事话语 Statementsthatstateordescribeandarethusverifiable Performatives 行事话语 Utterancesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastateandarenotverfiable SpeechActTheory NewModel JohnAustin Britishphilosopher Locutionaryact conveysliteralmeaningIllocutionaryact expressesthespeaker sintention Perlocutionaryact theconsequenceof orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance Searle ClassificationofSpeechActs JohnSearle Americanphilosopher 5typesofillocutionaryacts representatives 阐述类 Ihaveneverseenthegirlbefore directives 指示类 Openthedoor commissives 承诺类 Ipromisetotreatyoutodinner expressives 表达类 It sverykindofyoutohavethoughtofme declarations 宣告类 Inowdeclarethemeetingopen TheCooperativePrinciple PaulGrice sCP Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged Themaximofquantity asinformativeas notmoreinformativethanrequired Themaximofquality false lackadequateevidence Themaximofrelation berelevant Themaximofmanner avoidobscurity ambiguity bebriefandorderly ConversationalImplicature Whenwefloutamaxim ourlanguagebecomesindirect DoyouknowwhereDr Wanglives SomewhereintheIndustrialpark Wouldyouliketocometoourgraduationceremony IamafraidIamnotfeelingwelltoday Theteacherisanawfulbore Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful aren tthey Shallwegetsomethingforourson Yes ButIvetoI C E C R E A M LanguageChange Vocabularychange Additionofnewwords Lossofwords Changesinthemeaningofwords e g holiday widening corn narrowing lust usedtomeanpleasure nownegativeorsexualovertones meaningshift AdditionofNewWords Coinage walkman Kodak Clippedwords gym memo disco Blending smog motel brunch videophoneAcronyms IT WHO UNESCO Backformation tobaby sit totelevise tobutch Functionalshift tobrake aretreat toslow aChristianBorrowing balcony Italian waltz German RecentTrendsofLanguageChange TheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishMovingtowardsgreaterinformalityTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnology spacetravel computerandInternetlanguage ecology CausesofLanguageChange RapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyThewaychildrenacquirelanguageGrammarsimplification cow kine cows Elaboration tobeintelligible tocausetobered LanguageandSociety Judgmentsconcerningthecorrectnessandpurityoflinguisticvarietiesaresocialratherlinguistic e g inEnglandaccentswithoutpostvocalic r areconsideredmorecorrect inNewYorkcity accentswithpostvocalic r havemoreprestigeandareconsideredmorecorrect VarietiesofLanguage Thereexistvarietiesofthesameonelanguage Varietiesrelatedtotheuseraredialectsandvarietiesrelateduseareregisters Dialectalvarieties regionaldialect sociolect social classdialect gender age idiolect ethnicdialect Register fieldofdiscourse theareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity tenor theroleofrelationshipinthesituation mode themeansofcommunication e g alectureonlinguistics field scientific tenor T S formalpolite mode oral DegreesofFormality MartinJoosFrozenFormalConsultativeCasualintimate Standarddialect asuperimposed sociallyprestigiousdialect Pidgin aspeciallanguagevarietythatmixeslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading Creole Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity andisacquiredbychildrenastheirnativelanguage Bilingualism twolanguages Diglossia twovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity LanguageandCulture Culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople Languageasthekeystoneofcultureistightlyintertwinedwithculture Learningalanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture Whenwelearnasecondlanguage weshouldalsolearntoseetheworldasnativespeakersdo Sapir WhorfHypothesis Strongversion thelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople sthinkingandbehavior Weakversion thelanguagepatternsinfluencepeople sthinkingandbehavior LinguisticEvidenceofCulturalDifferences GreetingsandtermsofaddressThanksandcomplimentsColorwordsPrivacyandtaboosRoundingoffnumbers 数的归整 Americans 1gallon 4quarts 1quart 2pints Frenchmenroundoffto5 Wordsandcultural specificconnotations propaganda 胖Cultural relatedidioms proverbsandmetaphors luckydog LanguageAcquisition Traditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehaviorandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation ThelinguistNoamChomskyclaimsthathumanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguage Theinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops TheCriticalPeriodHypothesis Thestrongversion childrenmus