西方语言学理论与流派刘利民.doc

Thats one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind 1. What is language? 2.Features of language: duality;productivity;displacement; arbitrariness; cultural transgression; interchangeability3.定义：Saussure: Language is a system of signs, as systemic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols.American structuralists: Language is a systemic structures. Language is a product of social communication.(Social linguistics) Language is a system of psychological and cognitive signs. Language is a system of finite arbitrary symbol combinations generated on the basis of limited rules.(Chomsky) 索绪尔：其他学科的研究对象时是客观给定的，而语言学研究的对象则是需要界定的。 关于语言语义的界定到目前为止尚未得到统一。 学者的观点肯定对其语言学方法有着重大影响。 语言是一门科学，那什么是”科学“？Etymology : scientia meaning to know in Latin. An abstracted or summarized konwledge of experieces.- A systematic way of thinking ( inductive 归纳 deductive 演绎 abductive 溯因.）Inductive: This horse has four legs. And that horse has four legs. All horses have four legs.Deductive: Mother:put on your cotton coat. Son: why? M: it makes you warm. Son: cotton coat can make me warm. Then it must warm everything. He covered a piece of ice with his coat. When he opened the coat, and on the contrary to his precedent thought that the ice had melted into water, he surprised at that the ice is still there. Then he drew a conclusion that mother told a lie. Logical thinking and critical thinking are important.德里达Jacques Derrida以其“去中心”观念，反对西方哲学史上自柏拉图以来的“逻各斯中心主义”传统，认为文本（作品）是分延的，永远在撒播。德里达的批判矛头直指结构主义语言学理论。悖论：比如：解构理论认为一切都是解构的。那么解构理论能否解构解构理论本身呢？再比如： “ 我在说假话。”那么，这句话是真还是假？- A system of methods and of terms知识是一个个的命题。-A series of principles .(systematicity, exhaustiveness, objectivity, consistency , economy )If your theory is simple enough and can explain broad parts of phenomena, then that theory is a qualified scientific theory. 理论是用来解释现象的。每一个理论都是有简单的定理组成,能够完美解释现象。 E=mc2 is the most beautiful formula in the world of physics because it is simple enough and explains the high speed movement in the universe. 科学知识的哲学认识论基础： 经验论 Empiricism 和唯理论 Rationalism语言学的流派也可以这样分为两块。1. 经验论：empiricism基本立场：一切知识最终来源于经验，即感知资料（sense-data), 在此，观察与实验很重要。 Knowledge is from observation and experience. 这个是针对亚里士多德的：知识的可靠性要依赖逻辑的可靠性。比如三段论：人总是要死的，我是人，我是要死的。大前提正确，小前提正确，结论正确。这里的问题在于大前提的正确是哪里来的？过去的经验不一定意味着将来的逻辑一定成立。怀疑论者休谟说，农场里的鹅总在早上九点得到食物，于是认为早上九点，主人必定带来食物，结果一天早上九点，主人带来的是一把刀。 如何建立大前提的可靠性？observation 目标：经验现象背后的原因。方法：观察observation与归纳induction知识的标准模型standard model：实验科学。Standard experiments, physics, chemistry and so on 2. 唯理论 rationalism 基本立场：怀疑经验的可靠性，认为只有运用推理能力才能获得知识：以求真知都由无可怀疑的（ 先验 a priori ) 第一原理推论出来。（ 经验是不可靠的）I think therefore I am. 目标：知识的逻辑普遍性方法：逻辑推论 logical reasoning 知识的标准模型standard model：数学 mathematics现代语言学研究途径：秉承西方哲学精神，语言学家对语言的本质（什么是语言）与什么构成语言学知识的看法决定了其研究路径和学派倾向。语言研究的三大途径：1. 定性研究 - 唯理论的形式化抽象2. 定性研究 - 经验论的观察和推论 （ 中国语言学文章很多是这个范围）3. 量化研究 - 实证论的实验研究 1）定性研究 - 唯理论的形式化抽象 定性研究（qualitative research )指非实验的，一般不以数据形式表达的研究。通过逻辑分析或观察等，考察研究对象具有何种属性或特征，对象之间具有什么关系等，力图对研究对象的性质作出阐释。现象：中国语言没有明确的主语。中国队大败/大胜日本队。王冕七岁死了父亲。中国语言是人治的，西方语言是法治的。王力 2) 定性研究qualitative research - 经验论的观察和推论 着眼于观察语言的使用并对此进行考察。代表性学科：语用学、系统功能语法、认知语言学 求知是人的本能。3）量化研究 （ quantitative research ) 是实验科学的主要方法，及通过严格控制变量来观察时间的发生与变化，归纳出关于对象的认识。这种研究的信息都用数据来精确表达，以保证研究结果的客观性。（ 得出的结论只能是相对的）Three stages of linguistics study语言研究三步骤：1、观察observation（资料收集和整理 data collection and compilation）2.概括generalization（分析资料得出模型organizing data into general patterns and models ）3formalation.构想 （语言普遍性的理论 formulized theory of language universals） Difficulty of linguistics study语言研究的艰难：1. Object of study is more complex than that in any other sciences研究的对象比任何学科都复杂；If you Kick a ball, kick a dog, kick a boy , can you predict the route it rolls, acts?-humans action is out of control because there are many variables. Any subjects that are concerned with human being, they are must be very difficult to be accurate. In Medicine field, many high-tech equipments are used to inspect in order get exact data. But it is difficult to say that inception results are accurate and just as a reference. Individual difference. 2.language used to talk about language itself用语言来研究语言本身；3.implausibility to cover all language phenomena几乎不能穷尽语言现象；4.a private phenomenon based in the brain大脑深处的活动结论：Notorious for many schools of thought, with no unifying ideology. (依然是一门臭名昭著的学科）Theoretical(structure, principles ) , applied( teaching, translating)Diachronic( historical, change) , synchronic( languages as they are)Micro-linguistics( solely with the language system eg. structure, syntactic, phonetic) macro-linguistics (related to lan. Culture, psychology, computer ) 学科体系：1. 传统理论语言学（音系、句法、语义学等）2. 应用语言学（语言教学、翻译等）3.认知语言学（构式语法等）4. 语用学（认知语用）5. 社会语言学（人类语言学、文化语言学）6. 心里语言学（神经语言学、病理语言学）7. 数理语言学（逻辑语言学、统计语言学）1. Traditional grammar2. Structuralism (American behaviorism 3. Formalism (TG grammar, Montague grammar)4. Functionalism (systemic-functional grammar)5. Empiricism cognitive 古印度（400BC ？）：Vedas 吠陀经Panini: want to keep the beauty of classics Contribution：the principles of grammar study : exhaustiveness , consistency and economy ( 穷尽性、一致性、经济性）In natural science, simplicity is regarded as beauty. Einsteins formula E=mc2 is the best one. Ptolemy : the earth is the center. Copernicus: sun is the center（补充：潘尼尼的伟大著作八书是一部梵语语法著作。它极为详细地描写了梵语的每一个屈折变化、派生现象、组织结构和各种句法用法。印度语言研究主要集中在三个方面：一般语言理论和语义，语音和音位，语法描写，最突出的表现在语音学和音位学）Ancient China ( 500 BC last least ）汉语有单词吗？Great debate on Name and Actuality ( 名词之辩，先秦）孔子：正名。语言与现实的脱节dislocation of language and behaviors（ 循名责实，现实的东西应该符合语义规定的内涵、意义。那么语义规定从哪里来呢？法先王。这是一种唯心的，保守的方法论。 ）老子：道可道，非常道。名可名，非常名。墨子：以名举实圆：一中同长也。墨子The actuality can not comply the meaning of names. The use of the names should comply the actuality. 名家：物莫非指，而指非指。（诡辩家）白狗黑，龟比蛇长，天地一样高代表人物：惠施鉴于儒家，道家，阴阳家等大量研究。应该下功夫研究墨家，名家等。尔雅类似词典。文心雕龙是文学书。说文解字是文字书。 Linguistics：A Brief History（）的笔记1.苏格拉底 What Is .西方哲学的核心学科是形而上学，形而上学的核心问题是What is？对语言研究产生的影响：奠定了语言结构研究的基础，所创造的语言术语仍用至今。A foundation laid for language structure research. Terms such nouns , verbs . were invented that are still the basic vocabulary for linguistics today.Plato: the Idea(理念，相）2.柏拉图 理念论 （抽象的概念）Idea : the unchangeable essence of thingsMeaning: the essence of things embodied in language: The essence theory of language.语言表达的是事物的本质象声词、基于自然事物的比喻。整个语言就是模仿自然的本质。. 苏格拉底Socrates question : What Is .(justice,knowledge,courage) ?哲学在古希腊产生原因 a separation of language from its user and context of use. 这是形而上的，就是静止的，片面的，割裂的，机械的来思考问题。西方哲学的核心学科是形而上学，形而上学的核心问题是What is？The core of metaphysics is What IS.对语言研究产生的影响：奠定了语言结构研究的基础，所创造的语言术语仍用至今。A foundation laid for language structure research. Terms such nouns , verbs . were invented that are still the basic vocabulary for linguistics today.Plato: the Idea(理念，相）2.柏拉图 理念论 （抽象的概念）Idea : the unchangeable essence of thingsMeaning: the essence of things embodied in language: The essence theory of language.语言表达的是事物的本质象声词、基于自然事物的比喻。整个语言就是模仿自然的本质。九章算术与几何原理比较九章是实用算法，几何是逻辑推论，思维方法的科学与否非常重要。It is fault to use foreign terms and methods to study Chinese. We should invent a new set of grammatical system to study Chinese. 亚里士多德的观点Aristotle: distinction of grammar and logicBasic philosophical stand:Being: form + substanceHe distinguished letters, syllables and words and defined words as the smallest meaningful unit of language. He further distinguished conjunctions, phrases, sentences, in addition to nouns and verbs, etc. The shape of language is grammar.（form）What language refers to: proposition.(命题) (substance)后来的语言学界好多人仍然这么区分语言和意义。Meaning is a very great headache. 语言学的意义问题是研究语言人的噩梦。Conventionalist view: It is Reason and not just instinctive natural imitation that guides language. 趋势就是更加规范化，更加简化。Stoics: expanded Aristotelian foundation of logic, and laid a foundation for traditional grammar. Alexandrian( for literary criticism) Belief: language is inherently pure. Goal of grammar research: to explain the language of classical authors and prevent the corruption of the Greek language. 强化了书面语的研究Greek contribution: emphasis on word features, instead of on structures.Protagoras: 3 genders of GreekPlato: nouns and verbsAristotle: conjunction/ tense of GreekStoics: common noun普通名词/proper noun专有名词; inflexions of cases; Transitive及物/intransitive不及物的; active /passiveAlexandrians: adverbs, participles, pronouns and prepositionsThrax(100BC): The Grammar of Greek 世界第一本真正意义上的语法书Varro: the grammar of Latin 拉丁语法。Varros grammar was not original, but important in inheriting the Greek tradition, with the purpose of describing the grammar of the best writers, instead of the language of their own day. 传统语法是研究经典作品的书面语。这个传统直到索绪尔Saussure才改变。Medieval PeriodDominant language: study of Latin, the universal language in education, diplomacy, scholarship and culture. Primacy was still given to the written speech.University: quite a lot of noble and wealthy young men idled everyday and they come together and wanted to learn something to kill time. They invited all kinds of people to speak to them. Those who were invited are called professors. The root of professor is profess, which means to speak. Professor is simply a speaker. 老三艺：拉丁，历史，文学（哲学）Philosophical arguments: do the language universals have any reality? 一个语词的意义到底是实在的还是非实在的？ 一个词语到底是如何和现实世界发生关系的？这个问题至今没有统一的答案。中世纪研究语言的目的是我们如何理解世界，如何理解人生，是从哲学的角度去研究的。Renaissance periodVernacular languages 本国语言 attracted attention, but grammar was regarded as “the art of speaking and writing correctly. ”the task of grammarians was to describe “good usages” in order to prevent corruptions or barbarianisms(including loans, technical terms, slang etc.)语法学家：Arnauld (1612-1694)Lancelot (1615-1695)Traditional Grammar:1. Prescriptive in principle2. Practical, normative and semantically oriented3.中国第一部语法著作马氏文通 Thrax 斯拉克思 （100BC) 语法科学（属于帕加马学派，与亚历山大学派持对立观点）Varro 瓦罗 论拉丁语（用希腊语法的理论和范畴来描写和分析拉丁语） Medieval period主要特征：学习拉丁语，拉丁语作为教育、外交、学问和文化的通用语。以书面语为首。Nominalists唯名论者 - Realists 唯实论者哲学争议：Do the language universals have any reality ?(一个语词的意义是实在的还是？）语法：a philosophical theory of parts of speech and theri characteristic mode of signifying.文艺复兴时期 Vernacular languages(本国的、地方的语言） attracted attention, but grammar was regarded as the art of speaking and writing correctly , （比如英语，但是还是研究书面语）The task of grammarians was to describle good usages in order to prevent corruptions or barbariannisms ( including loans , technical terms , slang etc ) 试借词、科学术语、俚语等为腐朽的、粗俗的语言。传统语法：1、Prescriptive in principle (规范）2、Practical , normative and semantically oriented;（目的是为了教学，实用的，有遵守的模式，以语义研究为方向。如传统语法是根据意义来划分词类的）3、Rationalism in essence （唯理主义者） 普遍唯理语法 Human reason is universal and therefore human languages and their grammars have universality.（乔姆斯基运用了这一理论。）书籍有Theoretical books 和Practical books教学要用Teaching grammar,研究是theoretical grammar20世纪前50年，传统语法在以研究英语语法为主中得到了快速的发展。O. Jespersons Contemporary English Grammar R. Quirks A Grammar of Contemporary English第17、19世纪 历史比较语言学Zeitgeist（时代思潮）: 1) Scientific romanticism 科学浪漫主义门捷列夫的元素周期表2) Evolutionary point of view进化论3) Discovery of Sanskrit 梵文Sanskrit shared the same source of many old European languages.Theories proposed as explanations:1) Pure co-incidence2) Inter-language borrowing3) Common descendents of an Ursprache (protolanguage)源始语德国学者提出的比较语法学Comparative grammar : linguistics should search for new knowledge about language families, just like comparative anatomy brings new light to natural history.The Goal: searching for the Ursprache or Protolanguage.Method: comparison of languages, to find laws例如，拉丁语P音，到日耳曼语，变F音德国学者Schleicher A summary of the previous work of protolanguage reconstruction; believing that language is governed by the same operational and developmental laws as any other natural phenomena and therefore the precision methods in physical sciences are to be applied in language research. On the basis of the found data, he drew the family tree of Indo-European languages. 全世界一共八大语系（靠读音来划分）。Indo-European, Sino-Tibet（声调是语言）, 等 Schleicher System施莱赫尔体系孤立型语言原始不利于表达精确的思维 it is not suitable to express exact thinking or logical thinking, it is at the stage of primitive development.比如汉语。黏着型语言过度 比如日语曲折性语言高级阶段 比如德语但是他称英语是退化语言。分析语言是松散的。综合语言是缜密的,词语之间的关系有词尾变化来表达，即曲折变化Summary of historical comparative linguisticsContributions:1.identification of language types2.classification of language familiesEx.a. inflexional b. isolating c. agglutinative JunggrammatikersThe goal of language study is not for the reconstruction of the dead Ursprache.Language is not a natural but psychological phenomenon. Language change not because of evolution, but of individual psychological association.Two principles:1. that the laws of phonetics are the same as those in physics, which do not allow for any exceptions;2. that new forms are constructed by analogy, i.e., some words and forms are taken to be the criteria to which the other words and forms are to meet up to, and in this process new words and forms are constructed.Defects:Their proclamation that only the historical comparison is THE scientific study of language, to the exclusion of other language studies.Wilhelm von Humboldt 冯洪堡 影响后来的语言学家Chomskyan TG grammarHallidays SF grammar冯洪堡从人类的精神（human spirit）是一致的假设出发,认为人类语言尽管差异很大但都代表人类精神的。所以，他反对语言歧视。著作论人类语言结构的差异及其对人类精神发展的影响，洪堡特语言哲学文集。认为：语言：是人类精神的创造性活动，一种世界观。每学习一种新的语言，这个世界给你一个新的窗口，获得一种新的对世界的认识。语言学： 透过语言进行关于人类精神的研究；从语言素材考察语言的普遍性，从而把握人的共性与差异。落脚点是“人”。所有学问如果不是为人服务的，那是很难想象的。SAMPLES OF HIS STATEMENTS:跟语言有关的一切，都只能比拟为生理学的过程，而不能比你为解刨学过程；语言中没有任何静止的东西，一切都是动态的。语言不是精神产品，而是精神不由自主的流射。每一种语言都包含一种独特的世界观。人从自身中创造语言，而通过同一行为，他也把自己束缚在语言之中。海德格尔：语言是存在之家。Theoretical contributions:1. 区分语言与言语 语言：言语作品的总和，体现于言语活动本身2. 语言的内在形式 句法与语义结构：内部规律，纯智力活动的轨迹，语言的恒定本质3. 系统观：有限规则的无限运用4. 类型学分类：孤立语，粘着语，屈折语Self-contribution in his theory: 语言是民族精神；平等对待一切民族的语言、文化。“贬低一种语言不仅意味着辱没了最独特的人类本性，而且也与每一种通过深思熟虑和语言实践而形成的正确认识观格格不入。”印欧语言，特别是希腊语和梵语，却是最理想的语言，因为“语言中有效的生命原则主要依赖于语言的曲折作用。”人类语言的精确是靠曲折来表达的。有曲折的才是唯一正确的形式。His comments on the Chinese language:“它的形式或许比任一其它语言的形式都更好地突出了纯思维的力量，正是由于含有摒弃了所有细小的，会起干扰作用的联系音，才使得心灵能够更全面、更有力地把我纯粹的思想。”“汉语的结构显露出明显的缺陷：汉语习惯于把语音孤立，分割开来；”“在汉语里，完全要靠听话人自己努