托福听力 语音识别填空练习(答案).doc

Speech 1The _1_Greek word_for “man” is “anthropos” and the word _2_anthropology_has been in the English language_3_for centuries_. But just what does the word mean? Literally anthropology means “_4_the study of man_” However, as British_ 5_philosopher_Alfred North Whitehead_6_noted_, “It is a well founded historical generalization that _7_the last thing to be discovered_in any science is what science is really about” And as Paul Bohannan, _8_renowned anthropologist_, pointed out a number of years ago, “Each science that deals with people has its own _9_definitions_of human. An_10_economist_, “he explains,” defines a human as a_11 _choice-making_animal. Philosophers _12_define_man as a _13_rationalizing_animal” Anthropology_14 _attempts_to be all-inclusive-the study of human _15_behavior_in all places and throughout time. It_16_specializes_in the _17_describtion_of_18_humanistic, scientific, biological, historical, psychological, and social views of humans._. Now, to _19_paraphrase_Barbara Millers statement in her textbook, cultural anthropology , the popular impression of anthropology is _20_based mainly_on movies and television shows that _21_anticipated_anthropologists as adventurers and heroes. Some do have adventures and discover treasures in Egyptian _22_tombs_and elsewhere, but_23_mostly_, their work is less _24_glamourous_and involves _25_repetitive_and _26_tedious_activities. Until around the middle of the nineteenth century, anthropology was a term used for all humanists._27_My lecture today explains the fields and branches of anthropology_. Were going to_28_begin by_stating that anthropology is the study of human behavior in all places and at all times. Western_29 _civilizations_ takes credit for the development of anthropology, which, _30_as a matter of fact_, was a relatively late science. Earlier Greek and Roman philosophers were more interested in _31_speculating_about the ideal society _32_rather than_describing those known to them. After the_33 _onset_of the Age of Exploration, which included the discovery of the Americas, as well as travel to other distant places, the study of non-western people began in earnest. In modern day, anthropology is a recognized _34_social science_with two_35 _broad fields_and several_36_branches or sub-fields_. The two broad fields are _37_physical_anthropology and _38_cultural_anthropology. Let me give you a _39_brief description_of each. Physical anthropology is concerned with the development of man as a_40_mammal_. Related subjects are_41_anatomy_, biology, and paleontology. Physical anthropologists study the _42_evolution_of the human_43_species_. One way they do this is by the comparative analysis of fossils-preserved _44_remanence_of once-living creatures and living_45_primates_, which include human beings or Homo sapiens. Common _46_fossils_are shells, bones, and molds or imprints. These are found buried in the earth or_47_permanently frozen in glaciers_. Living primates are analyzed in order to study the mechanics of evolution and _48_genetic_differences among human populations. Next lets talk about cultural anthropology. This field is the study of learned behavior in human societies. Most cultural anthropologists limit themselves to a few_49_geographic areas_, _50_for example_, Margaret Mead in Samoa and New Guinea, and Clyde Kluckhohn with the Navajo Indians in the southwestern United States. I should mention that Kluckhohns work Mirror for Man is considered_51_one of the best introductions to anthropology_. Cultural anthropology and the _52_scientific_study of human culture will be discussed in more detail in our next lecture. The subfields of cultural anthropology are_53_archeology, linguistics and ethnography. _. Archaeology is the study of different cultures through material sources rather than direct _54_interviews or observations_of the group under study. _55_one example_of a famous archaeological site discovered in the past century was King Tuts Tomb near Luxor, Egypt, in 1922. Linguistics, as you probably know, is the study of language as _56_communication_among humans. Culture is learned and _57_transmitted_primarily through language. Ethnography is the systematic description of human societies,58 _mostly_based on firsthand fieldwork. Based on ethnographies, anthropologists provide ethnologies or explanations of the behavior of different peoples. A second subfield of ethnography is social anthropology. Social anthropology is _59_concerned with people_as social beings. A related subject is, of course, sociology. Let me also mention briefly psychological anthropology, which deals with human_60_personality and feelings_. These are greatly influenced by an individuals biological and_61 _mental_characteristics, as well as physical surroundings and personal_62_experiences_. Related subjects are psychology and psychiatry. It is important to note that there are several _63_univesals_common among all societies;_64_for example_, the basic similarities in human biology and the existence of two sexes. Another of these is education either formal or informal or both. Education is necessary to provide the young with the _65_skills and attitudes_needed to carry on as_66_adults_. So, you might ask, what are the practical applications for such a broad field? The answer is that anthropology helps us _67_plan the field_and helps us contribute to the _68_solutions_of human problems. This newest area of the study of man is applied anthropology._69_a formally_, anthropology was limited to the academic field. Anthropologists were teachers or museum curators. But for the past several _70_decades_large numbers of “anthro” graduates have been employed in fields such as _71_urban_planning and administration, _72_health care_, and international development. Most important is that although anthropologists have taken up the task of documenting the _73_processes and changes_of cultures past and present, they also provide the necessary insight into_74_where the human species is hiding_. Speech 2Let me begin the lecture today by asking, _1_what exactly is culture_This question has been _2_approached_by anthropologists in many different ways. Murdock, _3_for example_, in outline of world cultures, produced what many have called the _4_the ultimate laundry list _of things cultural, by naming 900-odd _5_categories_of human behavior. I wont _6_attempt_to go into these at this time. Another less _7_list is the famous “grocery list” of Edward B. Tyler. He wrote, “culture is that _8_complex_whole which includes knowledge, _9_belief, art, morals _, custom, and any other_10_capabilities_and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” But another _11_definition_of culture that many find useful is, “the_12_totality_ of learned, socially transmitted behavior.” Obviously this definition leaves out much if we feel _13_obligated_to include all the ways of life that have been evolved by people in every society. A particular culture, then, would mean the total shared way of life of a given group. This would include their ways of thinking, acting, and feeling as reflected in their_14_religion_, law, language, art, and customs, as well as concrete things such as_15_houses, clothing and tools_. Cultural anthropology is the study of cultures-living and dead. In its totality, it includes linguistics, the study of speech forms, _16_archaeology_( the study of dead cultures), and_17_ethnology_, which is the study of living cultures or those that can be observed directly. Why study cultural anthropology? One reason noted by Ruth Benedict, another well-known anthropologist, is that the story of humanity from the Stone Age to the present is such a fascinating one of cultural growth. Interestingly, every society has gone through three _18_stages_or steps of cultural growth. These are savagery, barbarism, and finally, civilization. The last is, of course, to varying degrees. We are often reminded of another _19_compelling_reason to learn about different cultures-to learn and use a foreign language effectively. Most of us realize that just knowing the language of another culture is not enough for_20_meaningful communication_. You can ask anyone who has tried to use their high school Spanish inside a Spanish-speaking country. Ned Seelye, in his 1993 book Teaching Culture, lists six _21_skills_to nurture and support intercultural communication: Number 1: Cultivate_22_curiosity_ about another culture and empathy toward its members. Number 2: Recognize that different roles and other social variables such as age, sex, social class, religion, ethnicity, and _23_place of residence_affect the way people speak and behave. Number3: Realize that effective communication requires discovering the culturally _24_conditioned images of people_when they think, act, and react to the world around them. Number4: Recognize that situational _25_variables and conventions _shape peoples behavior in important ways. Number5: Understand that people generally act the way they do because they are _26_excising the options_their society allows for satisfying basic physical and psychological needs. And, finally, number6: Develop the ability to evaluate the truth of a generalization about the target culture and to _27_locate_and organize information about the target culture from books, mass media, people, and personal observations. Culture and society must coexist. Without living together people cannot create a culture or a way of life. If a_28_group or society is small, isolated_, and_29_stable_, it might also share a single culture. For example, think of the Tasaday, allegedly a Stone Age people in the Philippine rain forest, who were discovered by anthropologists back in 1971. A side note is that due to their supposed_30_isolation_, they had no weapons or known words in their language for “enemy” or “war” In your reading after the lecture, youll learn more about the Tasaday and the controversy surrounding them up to the present time. It is important to remember, however, that_31_large societies_, such as those in Canada, the United States, India, or Egypt, are multicultural or “pluralist” societies. They also tend to have many subcultures. In the long history of human life, multiculturalism is a fairly_32_recent phenomenon_. Those of us in multicultural environments must remember that discovering _33_similarities_among people from different cultures is as important as identifying differences. For example, in classrooms on just about every university campus in the world, we find students from many different_34_social and ethnic backgrounds_. What are some of the “universals” that you and other international students have all experienced in your_35_earlier educational life_? One common universal is that all cultures use _36_rewards or punishments_to encourage_37_correct behavior_. Another_38 _example_is that societies withhold certain information from the young. This might include faults in our leaders or sexual taboos. A third universal is the _39_effort by the controlling group_in a culture to educate the young to _40_strengthen and secure_its dominant position. In the majority of contemporary societies this control is reached through political means_41_and in contrast to military actions of ealier times_,_42 _such as_the Roman Conquests and the Morrish invasions. _43_In closing this lecture on societies and culture_, let me _44_remind_you not to forget the contributions of thoughts and actions of the _45_individual person_in a group. Note the observation of Edward Sapir, another famous anthropologist: “it is always the individual that really thinks and acts and dreams and revolts.”_46_Now, obviously the concept of culture will be argued by anthropologists for years to come. Speech 3To many people throughout the world, some of the _1_most remarkable _and _2_puzzling monuments_ of ancient times are the pyramids of ancient Egypt. You know, almost nothing at all _3_remains_of the great cities of the kings of Egypt, the pharaohs. _4_Time and weather_have been really hard on ancient Egypts cities and towns, but several of the_5_temples, statues_, and, most important of all, the pyramids have _6_survived_. Even though many of the pyramids are in_7_ruins_, they still give us some idea of the _8_magnificence _of ancient Egypts civilization-a civilization that, after all, lasted for more than 3000 years. Remember, when were talking about _9_ancient_Egypt, were talking about at least thirty consecutive_10_dynasties_. A dynasty is a series of kings or queens of the same _11_royal_family-something like the Romanovs of Europe, the Ming dynasty of China, or the Al-Sauds of Saudi Arabia. As many of you probably already know, the pyramids were constructed as tombs or _12_burial_places for the Egyptian kings and their family members. You see, the ancient Egyptians _13_passionately_believed in life after death. In fact, their entire culture _14_revolved_around that belief. The kings, queens, and state officials often_15_spend an entire life time_ preparing for their life after death. They did this by_16_collecting possessions_ or “grave goods,” by_17_building tombs_, and so forth. The Egyptians believed that they could be assured of an afterlife only if their bodies could be preserved from_18_decay or destruction_. So when a person died, and _19_especially_when a pharaoh died, in order to ensure his _20_eternal_life, he had his body embalmed or mummified. In other words, he had his corpse _21_dried out_and wrapped in linen to preserve if from decay. Then he had his mummy_22_hidden_. This whole idea may seem quite strange today, but the ancient Egyptians really believed that if ones mummy was destroyed, then his or her_23_soul would be destroyed_, and if, on the other hand, the mummy-the dead body-was preserved, the soul would be_24_immortal_. Let me repeat that. If ones mummy waspreserved, the soul would_25_go on living_. For another thing, the ancient Egyptians believed that the dead person could take his or her earthly possession along to the next world-this is just the opposite of the Western idea that “_26_You cant take it with you when you go_.” Anyway, the dead person was provided with_27_food, clothing, furniture, weapons_, and even_28_servants_. It was not at all unusual for the pharaohs slaves to be put to death so that they could serve him in his afterlife. So you can see why the pharaohs wanted to have their bodies and their possessions hidden to protect them from_29_grave robbers_. Before they died, they had special tombs built for this purpose-to hide their bodies and their_30_treasures_. In the early years of ancient Egypt, these tombs were the pyramids-the vast burial chambers that were built to fool the grave robbers. Unfortunately, the grave robbers almost always outsmarted even the _31_most powerful and the most careful _of pharaohs. They broke into most of the pyramids or tombs and _32_stole the food and other treasures_they found. They even desecrated and destroyed the mummies of the dead. Needless to say, they would not bother a poor persons grave. These grave robbers even banded together into_33_organizations or brotherhoods_. Just imagine, a grave robbers union! Now, as for the actual construction of the mighty pyramids, it was during the First and Second Dynasties that the _34_kings and nobles_of Egypt began to construct the type of tomb called the “mastaba.” The First and Second Dynasties lasted from about 3100 until about 2665 B.C.E. Mastaba, by the way, comes from an Arabic word meaning _35_bench or long seat_A mastaba looked like a low, flat-topped rectangle-something like a low bench or a shoebox._36_essentially_, the pointed pyramid was no more than an extension upward of the flat-topped mastaba. The first _37_typical_pyramid (or, at least what most people generally think a pyramid looks like) was built during the third Dynasty (which lasted roughly from about 2664 until 2615 B.C.E.) this pyramid was for King Zoser (thats spelled Z-o-s-e-r) in about 2650 B.C.E. It was built by an _38_architect_named Imhotep (I-m-h-o-t-e-p). This pyramid was constructed as a series of_39_giant steps or stairs_. It, along with others of its type, is called the Step Pyramid. It was really simply a pile of mastabas, each step smaller and higher than the one before. The Step Pyramid of King Zoser was _40_different from_the later pyramids _41_because_it was never covered with