CultureCorner.docx

Golden AgesTimes were simpler once. Neighbors baked each other pies, people had actual conversations, and many spent their time innovating and discovering. Sound like a fantasy? It probably is. In all of human history, there has never been a time when everything was perfect. That hasnt stopped us, however, from believing that it was.An era of relative peace, prosperity, and cultural production which will define an entire society is often called agolden age. Its a nice idea, but where does this come from? According to Greek mythology, before the rise of true human societies (with the Bronze Age, etc.), all people lived in the Golden Age where there was no war, a constant abundance of food for which nobody had to work, and complete happiness.So, the Golden Age in Greek mythology was just that a myth. We still talk about historical golden ages, eras of prosperity in a societys history; while these periods did actually exist, we need to remember that everything wasnt perfect. The understanding of them as golden ages is a part of our modern cultures, as we try to understand what people of the past mean to us today.European Golden AgesLets start with Europe. Im going to warn you that this is far from a comprehensive list. Every nation of Europe has its own golden age that is seen as a fundamental moment in the founding of that society. But, here are a few big ones. Well start withClassical Athens. In roughly the 5th century BCE, the Greek city of Athens rose to political, military, economic, and cultural dominance.Under this society, the Athenians developed democracy, philosophy, and mathematics, as well as the most advanced architecture and sculpture in the world. Was everything perfect? No- they were constantly at war, practiced slavery, and were highly segregated by gender. But they set foundations of European cultural values that persist to this day. Athenian art set foundations for all of EuropeJumping forward quite a bit, we see Golden Ages in the Roman Republic, the Byzantine Empire, and even medieval England before arriving at theItalian Renaissanceof the 15th century. Money from international trade led to a massive swell in philosophy, education, and above all, the arts. This is the time period of Michelangelo, Donatello, Da Vinci, and Raphael (the painters, not the turtles). Again, Italian society was plagued by war, and occasionally the actual plague, but we remember this as a Golden Age of art, philosophy, and values that would reshape the European world.Asian Golden AgesJumping across the supercontinent and into Asia, we get an entirely new set of golden ages. One of Chinas first golden ages came with the rise of the true imperial system that would define China for millennia. During theHan Dynasty, from the 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE, the doctrine of Confucianism was adopted as a national philosophy, and when the borders of China expanded. Thanks to Chinas long imperial history, theyve had several golden ages, but the Han was one of the greatest.A golden statue from the Golden Age of the Han DynastyJust as Europe had late-period golden ages as well, so did Asia. One of Japans most remembered Golden Ages was theEdoperiod, lasting from the 17th to 19th centuries. Under the Edo, Japanese society thrived, developing art forms like Kabuki theater and woodblock printing while under the relative political stability of the Tokugawa warlords. This is also the height of the Samurai in Japanese history.Golden Ages in the AmericasOkay, so how about the Americas? Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Americas had their own histories, traditions, and eras that redefined them. In Mesoamerica, or Central America, the 1st century CE was a Golden Age for the Maya in Yucatn, and the various proto-Aztec cultures of the Valley of Mexico. Advanced architecture, philosophy, astronomy, and other foundations of Maya and Aztec societies emerged in this era of relative stability. The Incas of Peru also had their own golden ages of math, engineering, and culture.1. Rule of Wen and JingWhen the emperors Wen and Jing in the Western Han Dynasty (206B.C.- 8 A.D.) came into power, they went on with more moderate and humane policies carried by Emperor Gaozu.Historical records show that during their reigns the Han Dynasty (206B.C. - 220A.D.) prospered.Untroubled by wars or natural disasters, people lived in peace.This resulted in an increase in population and the development of manufacturing industries and commerce.The emperor Wen attached much importance to agriculture and economy.He encouraged agricultural output by further reducing taxes and asked people to grow mulberry and raise silkworms.Meanwhile, Wen introduced the reform of punishment and abolished many cruel penalties, in the 23 years of his reign, there was no reconstruction of the palace and his carriages remained the same.According to the historical records, the food supply was so ample that much got perished in the bams.Another important factor that contributed to the prosperity of Han was that Wen and Jing endeavored to maintain a friendly relationship with Han and neighboring countries.2. The Reigns of Emperor Zhang and MingAfter Emperor Guangwu died in 57, Emperor Ming and Emperor Zhang came to the throne successively, and they all carried on the practice of the founder of the Eastern Han.This period of time was seen as days of peace and prosperity, when the economy found time to recover from the damage.The two emperors also attached importance to Confucianism. In 59, Emperor Ming personally lectured in the imperial academy and discussed Confucian classics with scholars.Nearly 100 000 people are said to have attended.In 79, since there were theoretical diversities existed within Confucianism, Emperor Zhang brought together the famous scholars in the White Tiger Hall in Luoyang to discuss the varieties and unities of the Five Classics. He ordered Ban Gu to incorporate the conclusions into a book, Bai Hu Tong Yi (Comprehensive Discussions in the White Tiger Hall), which served to deify and consolidate imperial authority.3.Golden Age of Three Emperors The reigns of Qing emperors Kangxi (1661 - 1722), Yongzheng (1722 - 1735) and Qianlong (1735 - 1796) marked a period of unprecedented prosperity both politically and economically.Kangxi enjoyed the longest reign inChinesehistory. He was also the wisest emperor of Qing Dynasty. When he ascended the throne in 1661 as a child, the rule of Qing Dynasty was unstable. Many officials of the old regime wanted to overthrow Qing Dynasty andresumeMings rule. Kangxi promoted aprogramof Sinicization of his government, including instituting Confucianism as the state ideology, appointing Han officials and promoting Han culture among the ruling Manchu class. It was also he who proposed to compile theKangxiDictionaryand the first on-the-spot surveyingmap named theMapof China in Kangxis Reign.Kangxi alsoattachedgreat importance to the restoration ofagricultural production, which had been devastated by years ofwar. He adopted a series of measures to lighten the burden of the farmers. He often took imperial tours of inspection to know the conditions and sufferings of people.Kangxi suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories (Wu Sangui, Geng Jingzhong and Shang Kexi), separatist activities in Mongolia and Tibet, and wrested the control of Taiwan from the descendants of Zheng Chenggong. In addition, encroachment from tsarist Russia was halted. Kangxi thus made great contributions to the territorial integrity of the country, as well as to its security and prosperity.Emperor Yongzheng proved a worthy successor to Kangxis policies. Emperor Yongzheng, succeeded to the throne in 1735. He encouraged farmers to cultivate waste land, and lightened their tax burden. He mitigated the intense relations between the central and regional officails caused in Yongzhengs reign. He also strengthened the central governments control over the ethnic-minority areas, particularly in Tibet.During Qianlongs reign, economy developed fast, the population also increased, and Qing Dynasty entered its strongest phase.中国历史常用术语中英对照一览表先秦 宗法制：其实就是以血缘为准的嫡长子继承其余分封的制度，有人用Patriarchy这个词，但是这个词只强调了父系血统，却没有强调继承。我比较喜欢的处理方法是直接说Zongfa system 礼乐制度 Rites and Music Principals 周礼 Rituals of Zhou 成康之治 Great Reigns of King Cheng and King Kang 战国 Warring States Period 春秋五霸 Five Hegemons 吴越争霸 Contention of Wu and Yue 或者 Rivalry between Wu and Yue 战国七雄：貌似没有专门的说法，一般就是Seven Warring States 百家争鸣 Hundred Schools of Thoughts 儒家 Confucianism 孔子 Confucius 或 School of Ru（不常用） 孟子 Mencius 荀子 Xuncius 道家 Taoism 或 Daoism 老子 Lao Tzu 或 Laozi 庄子 Chuang Tzu或Zhuangzi 无为 Wu-wei，解释为Action of actionless 墨家 Mohism 法家 Legalism 名家 Logicianism 或者 School of Names 阴阳家 Naturalism，School of Naturalists 或者 School of Yin and Yang 纵横家 School of Diplomacy 小说家 School of Minor Talks 杂家 Syncretism 农家 Agriculturalism 医家 School of Medicine 兵家 School of Military 孙子兵法 The Art of War 或者 Art of Wars 孙子 Sun Tzu 四书五经 Four Books and Five Classics 论语 Analects of Confucius 或者直接 Lun Yu 大学 Great Learning 中庸 Doctrine of the Mean 或者直接 Zhongyong 诗经 Classic of Poetry 或者 Classic of Songs 书经 Book of Documents 礼记 Book of Rites 或者 Classic of Rites 易经 Book of Changes 或者 I-Ching 春秋 Annals of Spring and Autumn 六韬 Six Secret Teachings 商君书 The Book of Lord Shang 管子 Guanzi 韩非子 Han Feizi 法经 Canon of Laws 商鞅变法 Reform of Shang Yang in State Qin 胡服骑射 Riding and shooting in nomadic dress 井田制 Hashtag-shaped-field system 或者 Well-field system 都江堰 Dujiangyan Water Conservancy Project秦汉 秦始皇 Qin Shi Huang Emperor，First Emperor of Qin 或者 Shi Huang Ti 兵马俑 Terracotta Warriors 焚书坑儒 Burning of Books and Burying of Confucianism Scholars 陈胜吴广起义 Dazexiang Uprising 郡县制 Administrative system with prefectures and counties，有的地方也说成commanderies and districts 灵渠 Ling Canal 封禅：一般的处理方式是说Fengshan然后解释，比如a type of ceremony held on Mount Tai where the emperor would offer sacrifices to the heavenly king 楚汉战争 Chu-Han Contention 西楚霸王 Prince of Western Chu 游牧民族 Nomadic people 南蛮 Southern Barbarians 百越 Hundred Yue Tribes 或者 Hundred Viet Tribes 文景之治 Great Reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing 七国之乱 Rebellion of seven feudatory states 罢黜百家独尊儒术 (to) Promote Confucianism and suppress other schools of thoughts 史记 Record of the Grand Historian 或者就叫 Shiji 二十四史 The 24 Official History Accounts 或者 The 24 Official Histories 丝绸之路 Silk Road 河西走廊 River-west Corridor, River-west Aisle, Hexi Corridor 或者直接 Hexi 玉门关 Yumen Pass 或者 Jade Gate Pass 罪己诏 Edict of Introspection 西域都护府（西汉） Western Region Protectorate 西域长史府（东汉）Western Region Chief Administration Bureau 光武中兴 The Reign of Emperor Guangwu 造纸术 Paper-making technology 赤壁之战 Battle of Red Cliffs 察举制：这个貌似没见过专门的对应，所以就还是直接说Cha Ju system，然后加以说明，比如nominate (recommend) prospective government officials based on their filial morality and honesty 九品中正制：记得在哪里见过它被叫做Nine-rank system，但是这么说了也等于没说，所以我觉得还是按照上面的处理，说拼音Jiu Pin Zhong Zheng system 然后加说明，比如nominate government officials based on their social status in the hierarchy of nine grades 三公九卿 Three Councillors and Nine Ministers/Chamberlains 丞相/宰相 Chancellor 汉赋 Rhapsody poetry of Han dynasty 或者就叫 Fu Poetry 汉书 Book of Han 后汉书 Book of Later Han 盐铁论 Discourses on Salt and Iron 金缕玉衣 A jade suit with golden wires 九章算术 Nine Chapters of Mathematics 昭君出塞 Wang Zhaojuns Marriage to Xiongnu隋唐 开皇之治 Great Reign of Kaihuang 科举考试 Imperial Exams 大运河 Grand Canal 三省 Three Departments 六部 Six Ministries 或者 Six Boards 二十四司 Twenty-Four Bureaus 均田制 Equal-field system 隋书 Book of Sui 玄武门之变 Xuanwu Gate Incident 贞观之治 Great Reign of Zhenguan 吐蕃 Tibetan Empire 松赞干布 Songtsen Gampo 布达拉宫 Potala Palace 文成公主 Princess Wencheng 长安东市 Eastern Market of Changan 长安西市 Western Market of Changan 大明宫 Daming Palace 武则天 Empress Wu Zetian 无字碑 Blank Monument of Wu Zetian 开元盛世 Great Reign of Kaiyuan 杨贵妃 Lady Yang 荔枝 Lychee 霓裳羽衣曲 The Song of Feathered Clothes with Colors of Rainbow 李白 Li Bai 或者 Li Bo 诗仙 Master of Poetry，Genius of Poetry 或者 God of Poetry 诗圣 Sage of Poetry 诗佛（王维） Buddha of Poetry 诗鬼（李贺）Phantom of Poetry 或者 Ghost of Poetry 诗骨（陈子昂）Bone of Poetry 或者 Stand of Poetry 诗杰（王勃）The Outstanding Poet 诗奴（孟郊）Slave of Poetry 或者 Prisoner of Poetry 诗魔（白居易）Devil of Poetry 或者 Demon of Poetry 诗豪（刘禹锡）Elite of Poetry 或者 Hero of Poetry 诗狂（贺知章）The Mad Poet 诗瓢（唐求）The Calabash Poet 骈文 Pianwen, a type of rhythmical prose with perfect parallel lines 古文运动 Classic/Ancient Prose Movement 日本遣唐使 Japanese missions to Imperial China 或者 Kento Shi 安史之乱 An Lushans Rebellion 或者 An-Shi Rebellion 大唐西域记 The Grand/Great Tang Record on the Western Region 给事郎 Supervising Secretary 进奏院 Capital Liaison Office 按察使 Surveillance Commissioner明清 永乐盛世 Great Reign of Yongle Emperor 永乐大典 Yongle Encyclopedia 郑和下西洋 Zheng Hes Voyages 仁宣之治 Great Reigns of Emperor Renzong and Emperor Xuanzong 隆庆新政 Reform of Longqing Emperor 张居正改革 Zhang Juzhengs Reform 万历中兴 Reign of Wanli Emperor 进贡 Pay the tribute 厂卫 Secret police agency of Ming dynasty 东厂 Eastern Depot 或者 Dongchang secret police agency 西厂 Western Depot 或者 Xichang secret police agency 李自成起义 Li Zicheng Uprising 郑成功 Kosinga 或者 Koxinga（”国姓爷”） 满族 Manchus 满洲 Manchuria 铁帽子王 Iron-Cup Princes 八旗制度： Eight Banners，具体的一般正xx旗是Plain，比如正红旗是Plain Red Banner，镶xx旗是Bordered，比如镶黄旗是Bordered Yellow Banner 内务府 Office of Imperial Household 三藩之乱 Revolt of Three Feudatories 康乾盛世 Great Reign of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong Emperors 或者 Great Reign of Three