国际经济学(双语)-第4章ppt课件

TariffsandNontariffBarriers InternationalEconomics Chapter4 Chapter4TariffsandNontariffBarriers 4 1TheoriesforTradeProtection4 2Tariffs4 3NontariffTradeBarriers 4 1TheoriesforTradeProtection InfantIndustryArgumentThisargumentcontendsthatforfreetradetobemeaningful tradingcountriesshouldtemporarilyshieldtheirnewlydevelopingindustriesfromforeigncompetition 4 1TheoriesforTradeProtection Sometruthsintheinfantindustryargument Onceaprotectivetariffisimposed itisverydifficulttoremove evenafterindustrialmaturityhasbeenachieved Itisverydifficulttodeterminewhichindustrieswillbecapableofrealizingcomparativeadvantagepotentialandthusmeritprotection Theargumentgenerallyisnotvalidformature industrializedcountries Theremaybeotherwaysofinsulatingadevelopingindustryfromcutthroatcompetition Ratherthanadoptaprotectivetariff thegovernmentcouldgrantasubsidytotheindustry 4 1TheoriesforTradeProtection TermsofTradeArgumentInsomecases thetermsoftradebenefitsofatariffoutweighitscosts sothereisaterms of tradeargumentforatariff Thetermsoftradeargumentagainstfreetrade then isintellectuallyimpeccablebutofdoubtfulusefulness Inpractice itisemphasizedmorebyeconomistsasatheoreticalpropositionthanitisusedbygovernmentsasajustificationfortradepolicy 4 1TheoriesforTradeProtection DomesticMarketFailureArgumentTheoryofthesecondbestWheneconomistsapplythetheoryofthesecondbesttotradepolicy theyarguethatimperfectionsintheinternalfunctioningofaneconomymayjustifyinterferinginitsexternaleconomicrelations Thisargumentacceptsthatinternationaltradeisnotthesourceoftheproblembutsuggestsnonethelessthattradepolicycanprovideatleastapartialsolution 4 1TheoriesforTradeProtection StrategicTradePolicyBecauseofthesmallnumberoffirms theassumptionofperfectcompetitiondoesnotapply Thereareonlyafewfirmsineffectivecompetitioninsomeindustries Thisargumentlocatesthemarketfailurethatjustifiesgovernmentinterventioninthelackofperfectcompetition Itispossibleinprincipleforagovernmenttoaltertherulesofthegametoshifttheseexcessreturnsfromforeigntodomesticfirms Chapter4TariffsandNontariffBarriers 4 1TheoriesforTradeProtection4 2Tariffs4 3NontariffTradeBarriers 4 2Tariffs Atariffissimplyatax duty leviedonaproductwhenitcrossesnationalboundaries Importtariffv s ExporttariffProtectivetariffv s RevenuetariffTypesofTariffsSpecificTariffAdValoremTariffCompoundTariff 4 2Tariffs EffectiveRateofProtection ERP thepercentagechangeinthevalueaddedinanindustrybecauseoftheimpositionofatariffstructurebythecountryratherthantheexistenceoffreetrade 4 2Tariffs CalculationofERP WayI 4 2Tariffs CalculationofERP WayII 4 2Tariffs Threegeneralrulesabouttherelationshipbetweennominalratesandeffectiveratesofprotection Ifthenominaltariffrateonthefinalgoodishigherthantheweightedaveragenominaltariffrateontheinputs thentheERPwillbehigherthanthenominalrateonthefinalgoods Ifthenominaltariffrateonthefinalgoodislowerthantheweightedaveragenominaltariffrateontheinputs thentheERPwillbelowerthanthenominalrateonthefinalgoods Ifthenominaltariffrateonthefinalgoodisequaltotheweightedaveragenominaltariffrateontheinputs thentheERPwillbeequaltothenominalrateonthefinalgoods 4 2Tariffs Twoconsequencesoftheeffectiveratecalculation Thedegreeofeffectiveprotectionincreasesasthevalueaddedbydomesticproducersdeclines Intheformula thehigherthevalueofaijis thegreatertheeffectiveprotectionrateforanygivennominaltariffrateonthefinalproductwillbe Atariffonimportsusedintheproductionprocessreducesthelevelofeffectiveprotection Intheformula astirises thenumeratoroftheformuladecreasesandhenceERPdecreases 4 2Tariffs Conclusionwhenmaterialinputsorintermediateproductsenteracountryataverylowdutywhilethefinalimportedcommodityisprotectedbyahighduty theresulttendstobeahighprotectionrateforthedomesticproducers Thenominaltariffrateonfinishedgoodsthusunderstatestheeffectiverateofprotection Butshouldatariffbeimposedonimportedinputsthatexceedsthatonthefinishedgood thenominaltariffrateonthefinishedproductwouldtendtooverstateitsprotectiveeffect 4 2Tariffs TariffEscalationThetariffstructureshavegenerallybeencharacterizedbyrisingratesthatgivegreaterprotectiontointermediateandfinishedproductsthantoprimarycommodities Thetariffstructuresoftheindustrializedcountriesmayindeeddiscouragethegrowthofprocessing thushamperingdiversificationintohighervalue addedexportsforthelessdevelopedcountries worseningthepotentialcompetitivepositionoftheless developedcountriesinthemanufacturingandprocessingsectors 4 2Tariffs TariffWelfareEffectsConsumerSurplusConsumersurplusreferstothedifferencebetweentheamountthatbuyerswouldbewillingandabletopayforagoodandtheactualamounttheydopay ProducerSurplusProducersurplusistherevenueproducersreceiveoverandabovetheminimumamountrequiredtoinducethemtosupplythegood 4 2Tariffs 4 2Tariffs TradeWelfareEffectofTariffinaPartialEquilibriumSettingTheSmall NationCase 4 2Tariffs Theredistributiveeffect Areaa thetransferofconsumersurplus inmonetaryterms tothedomesticproducersoftheimport competingproduct Theprotectiveeffect Areab thelosstothedomesticeconomyresultingfromwastedresourcesusedtoproduceadditionalclothatincreasingunitcosts Thedomesticrevenueeffect Areac thetariffproceedspaidbycountryA sconsumerstoitsgovernment Theconsumptioneffect Aread arisesfromthedecreaseinconsumptionresultingfromthetariff sartificiallyincreasingtheprice Thedeadweightloss Areasb d representsarealcosttoacommunity notatransfertoothersectorsoftheeconomy 4 2Tariffs Levyinganimporttariff therefore reducesasmallcountry swelfare WelfareCostofaTariffImposedbyaSmallNation 4 2Tariffs TheLarge NationCaseTheequilibriumworldpriceisdefinedasthepriceatwhichthequantitythatconsumersinCountryAwanttoimportisequaltothequantitythatproducersinCountryBwanttoexport Inthediagram thispriceisdenotedbyPFT InternationalFree TradeEquilibrium 4 2Tariffs ThesizeofthetariffequalsthedifferencebetweenthepriceconsumersincountryApayfortheproduct PT andthepriceproducersincountryBreceive P Thatis theperunittariffoftequalsPT P 4 2Tariffs Theredistributiveeffect Areaa thetransferofconsumersurplus inmonetaryterms tothedomesticproducersoftheimport competingproduct Theprotectiveeffect Areab thelosstothedomesticeconomyresultingfromwastedresourcesusedtoproduceadditionalclothatincreasingunitcosts Thedomesticrevenueeffect Areac thetariffproceedspaidbycountryA sconsumerstoitsgovernment Theconsumptioneffect Aread arisesfromthedecreaseinconsumptionresultingfromthetariff sartificiallyincreasingtheprice Thetermsoftradeeffect Areae theamountofthetariffrevenuepaidbyforeignersbecausetheworldpriceoftheirexportshasfallen 4 2Tariffs ThechangeinwelfareincountryAbroughtaboutbytheimpositionofatariffequalse b d Thisamountcouldbepositiveornegative dependingontherelativesizesofthetwoterms Optimaltariff thetariffwouldbesettoalevelthatmaximizestheareae b d 4 2Tariffs TradeWelfareEffectofTariffinaGeneralEquilibriumSettingTheSmall NationCase 4 2Tariffs Thereductioninwelfarecomesfromtwoeffects Theeconomynolongerproducesatapointthatmaximizesthevalueofincomeatworldprices ThebudgetconstraintthatpassesthroughB1liesinsidetheconstraintpassingthroughB0 Consumersdonotchoosethewelfare maximizingpointonthebudgetconstraint theydonotmoveuptoanindifferencecurvethatistangenttotheeconomy sactualbudgetconstraint 4 2Tariffs TheLarge NationCase Withtheimpositionofatariff CountryI soffercurveOCIshiftsinwardtoOCI 4 2Tariffs TheImpactofaTariff TheequilibriumquantityofexportsfallsfromOB1toOB2 andthequantityofimportsfallsfromOA1toOA2 CountryI stermsoftradeimprovefromTOT1toTOT2 Chapter4TariffsandNontariffBarriers 4 1TheoriesforTradeProtection4 2Tariffs4 3NontariffTradeBarriers 4 3NontariffTradeBarriers AnIntroductiontoNontariffTradeBarriersImportQuotaAnimportquotaisaphysicalrestrictiononthequantityofgoodsthatmaybeimportedduringaspecificperiod thequotagenerallylimitsimportstoalevelbelowwhichimportswouldoccurunderfree tradeconditions Acommonpracticetoadministeranimportquotaisforthegovernmenttorequireanimportlicense Eachlicensespecifiesthevolumeofimportsallowed andthetotalvolumeallowedshouldnotexceedthequota ImportquotasonmanufacturedgoodshavebeenoutlawedbytheWorldTradeOrganization 4 3NontariffTradeBarriers Tariff RateQuota ATwo TierTariffatariff ratequotadisplaysbothtariff likeandquota likecharacteristics Thisdeviceallowsaspecifiednumberofgoodstobeimportedatonetariffrate thewithin quotatariffrate whereasanyimportsabovethislevelfaceahighertariffrate theover quotatariffrate atariffratequotaisatwo tiertariff 4 3NontariffTradeBarriers OrderlyMarketingAgreementsAnorderlymarketingagreement OMA isamarket sharingpactnegotiatedbytradingpartners Itsmainpurposeistomoderatetheintensityofinternationalcompetition allowinglessefficientdomesticproducerstoparticipateinmarketsthatwouldotherwisehavebeenlosttoforeignproducerswhosellasuperiorproductatalowerprice AtypicalOMAconsistsofvoluntaryquotasappliedtoexports Thesecontrolsareknownasvoluntaryexportrestraints VERs theyaresometimessupplementedbybackupimportcontrolstoensurethattherestraintsareeffective 4 3NontariffTradeBarriers DomesticContentRequirementsTolimitthepracticeofoutsourcing organizedlaborhaslobbiedfortheuseofdomesticcontentrequirements Theeffectofcontentrequirementsistopressurebothdomesticandforeignfirmswhosellproductsinthehomecountrytousedomesticinputs workers intheproductionofthoseproducts Manufacturersgenerallylobbyagainstdomesticcontentrequirements becausetheypreventmanufacturersfromobtaininginputsatthelowestcost thuscontributingtohigherproductpricesandlossofcompetitiveness 4 3NontariffTradeBarriers SubsidiesNationalgovernmentssometimesgrantsubsidiestotheirproducerstohelpimprovetheirtradeposition Governmentalsubsidiesassumeavarietyofforms includingoutrightcashdisbursements taxconcessions insurancearrangements andloansatbelow marketinterestrates Twotypesofsubsidies adomesticsubsidywhichissometimesgrantedtoproducersofimport competinggoods anexportsubsidywhichgoestoproducersofthegoodsthataretobesoldoverseas 4 3NontariffTradeBarriers DumpingDumpingisrecognizedasaformofinternationalpricediscrimination Itoccurswhenforeignbuyersarechargedlowerpricesthandomesticbuyersforanidenticalproduct afterallowingfortransportationcostsandtariffduties Sellinginforeignmarketsatapricebelowthecostofproductionisalsoconsidereddumping Commercialdumpingisgenerallyviewedassporadic predatory orpersistentinnature Eachtypeispracticedunderdifferentcircumstances 4 3NontariffTradeBarriers TheeffectsofanImportQuota Intheabsenceoftrade equilibriumwouldoccuratPointEwiththedomesticpriceofclothequalingP Thefree tradeequilibriumislocatedatPointF thedomesticpriceofclot