新编语言学教程1

.,01Introduction汪立荣email:lironeQQ：752256232,Specificexpressions快,forexample,isusedinChinesewhenpeoplearecomingtoyourhouse:快请进,快请坐,快喝杯水,快喝杯茶,快吃个苹果.InthiswayweChineseexpressourwelcomeandwarmthtothevisitors.And慢isusedwhenpeoplearetosaygoodbye:慢走,慢慢吃,慢慢喝,慢慢聊,慢慢倾(Cantonese),慢慢压(Cantonese).,.,SuchexpressionsarespecifictoChinese.ThatiswhyinEnglishwecannotsay“*Comeinquickly”,“*Sitdownquickly”,or“*Walkslowly.”GrammaticalrulesInEnglish,forexample,“I”isfollowedby“am”,and“you”by“are”,and“he”by“is”.Nowtrytoanswerthefollowingquestions:1)Aretherulesinlanguageformedgraduallythrougheverydayuseorprescribedbylinguists?,.,2)Peoplespeaktheirmothertonguecorrectly,fluentlyandappropriately.AnilliteratewomaninGuangzhou,forexample,speaksCantonesecorrectly,fluentlyandappropriately.DoyouthinksheknowsCantonesegrammar?Whyorwhynot?Howdoyouexplainthisphenomenon?3)Isthereanythingwrongwiththesentence“Myfatherisaworker”?Why?4)Isthereanythingwrongwiththesentence“Letsgotoeatrice”?Why?,.,1.Linguistics,1.1DefinitionYoumayfindithardtoanswerpeoplewhoaskyou,Whatexactlyislinguistics,andwhatdolinguistsdo?Theymightassumethatitmeansthatyouaremultilingual.Andyoumay,infact,beapolyglot,butthatsnotwhatlinguisticsmajorisabout.Linguisticsisthescientificorsystemicstudyoflanguage(p.1).,.,Attheheartoflinguisticsisthesearchfortheunconsciousknowledgethathumanshaveaboutlanguage(s),anunderstandingofthestructureoflanguage,andknowledgeabouthowlanguagesdifferfromeachother.Whatexactlydowemeanbythis?Whenyouwereborn,youwerenotabletocommunicatewiththeadultsaroundyouusingtheirlanguage.Butbythetimeyouwerefiveorsix,youwereabletoproducesentences,understandjokes,makerhymes,andsoon.,.,Inshort,youbecameafluentnativespeaker.Allofthishappenedbeforeyouenteredfirstgrade!(Ifyoustudiedaforeignlanguageinhighschool,youknowthatlearningalanguagelaterinlifedidnotgonearlyassmoothlyorasquickly.)Duringthosefirstfewyearsofyourlife,youaccumulatedawiderangeofknowledgeaboutlanguage.Majoringinlinguisticsmeansthatyouwilllearnaboutmanyaspectsofhumanlanguage,includingthephysicalpropertiesandstructureofsounds(phoneticsandphonology),words(morphology),sentences(syntax),andmeaning(semantics).,.,Itcaninvolvelookingathowlanguageschangeovertime(historicallinguistics);howtheyvaryfromsituationtosituation,grouptogroup,andplacetoplace(sociolinguisticsanddialectology);howpeopleuselanguageincontext(pragmatics);orhowpeopleacquireorlearnlanguage(languageacquisition).Facultymembersinlinguisticsprogramsareexpertsinatleastone(ifnotseveral)ofthesesubfields.,.,Manylinguists,infact,haveexpertiseinmultiplesubfieldsandenjoycollaboratingwithotherlinguistswithdifferentbackgroundsinordertofurtherscientificknowledge.Linguisticsprogramsmaybeorganizedarounddifferentaspectsoflinguistics.Forexample,aprogrammightfocusonthelinguisticsofaparticulargroupoflanguages(likeSlaviclinguistics);howlanguageisacquiredandprocessed(psycholinguistics);howlanguagerelatestosocialandculturalissues,includinglanguagelearningandteaching(appliedlinguistics);ortheconnectionsbetweenlinguisticsandcognitivescience.,.,Alloftheseprogramsshareaninterestintheunconsciousknowledgethathumanshaveaboutthelanguage(s)thattheyknowandwhatispossibleorimpossibleinlanguage.1)Thethreecanonsoflinguistics(p.1)Sincelinguisticsisascience,itisguidedbythesamethreeprinciplesasinothersciences.a.exhaustiveness,.,Thelinguistshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttohisinvestigationandgivethemanadequateexplanation.b.consistencyThereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatementc.economyThebeststatementsaretheshortestpossibleoneswhichcanaccountmostfullyforallfacts.,.,2)Twopurposes(p.2)a.Linguisticsstudiesthenatureoflanguageinordertoestablishatheoryoflanguageanddescribeslanguagesinthelightofthetheoryestablished.b.Linguisticsexaminesalltheformsoflanguageingeneralandseeksascientificunderstandingofthewaysinwhichitisorganizedtofulfilltheneedsitservesandthefunctionsitperformsinhumanlife.,.,1.2ThedifferencebetweenlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammarTraditionalgrammar,asapre-20thcenturylanguagedescriptionandpre-linguisticproductofresearch,wasbaseduponearliergrammarsofLatinorGreek(e.g.EnglishhadsixcasesbecauseLatinhadsixcases),andlaidemphasisoncorrectness,literaryexcellence,theuseofLatinmodels,andthepriorityofwrittenlanguage.,.,1.2.1ThreesourcesofprescriptivegrammarThethreesourcesfromwhichtherulesofprescriptivegrammarcomefrom:1)LatinandGreekunchangingformoftheselanguages(becausetheyaredeadlanguages,theydonotchange)highprestigeinEuropeaneducationbrillianceofclassicalliteraturee.g.“ItisI”andnot“Itisme”,.,2)thewrittenlanguageespeciallytheworksofgreatwriters.Peoplearetoldtospeakastheywouldwrite.e.g.Whomdidyouspeakto?3)LogicGrammarshouldbejudgedinsofarasitfollowstheprinciplesoflogic.e.g.Youshouldntsay“Ihaventdonenothing”,.,1.2.2DifferencebetweenlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammarLinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthefollowingthreeways:1)Itjustdescribeslanguages,insteadoflayingdownrulesofcorrectness.2)Itregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewrittenlanguage.3)ItdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmeritsinsteadofimposingLatinmodelsonit.,.,1.3Useofstudyinglinguistics(pp.3-4)1)Tohaveanoverviewofhumanlanguage;2)Tounderstandthathumanlanguageshaveimportantfeaturesincommonthoughtheydiffergreatlyinmanydetails;3)Togoalongthepathleadingtothefinalprofessioneitherasateacherofforeignlanguagesorasaresearcheroflinguisticsortranslation(p.4),.,1.4Scopeoflinguistics(pp.4-8)1)microlinguisticsVSmacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics,Phonology,Morphology,Syntax,Semantics,Pragmatics.Thesebranchesareattheverycenteroflinguisticscope.Macrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics(itstudiestherelationsbetweenlanguageandsociety),.,Psycholinguistics(itstudieslanguageandmind),Neurolinguistics(or:Neurologicallinguistics,itstudieslanguageprocessingandlanguagerepresentationinthebrain),Stylistics(itstudieshowliteracyeffectscanberelatedtolinguisticfeatures),Discourseanalysis(Textlinguistics,itstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontextsinwhichlanguageisused),.,Computationallinguistics(itemploysmathematicaltechniques,oftenwiththehelpofacomputer),Cognitivelinguistics(itanalyzesnaturallanguagethatfocusesonlanguageasaninstrumentfororganizing,processing,andconveyinginformation).Thesebranchesarerelatedtosomethingthatisnotatthecenteroflinguisticscope.,.,2)LinguisticsclassifiedfromdifferentperspectivesfunctionallinguisticsVSformallinguisticstheformerstressesthefunctionoflanguageandthelatterstressestheformoflanguagetheoreticallinguisticsVSappliedlinguisticstheformerstudiesthe“pure”theoryinlanguageandthelatterstudieshowtoapplythetheorycorpuslinguisticslinguisticdescriptionbasedontheextensiveaccumulationofnaturallyoccurringlanguagedataanditsanalysisbycomputers,.,forensiclinguisticstheexaminationoflinguisticevidenceforlegalpurposesmathematicallinguisticsthestudyofthemathematicalpropertiesoflanguageanthropologicallinguisticsthestudyoflanguageincross-culturalsettings3)Recentdevelopmentsoflinguistics:Corpuslinguistics,DiscourseAnalysis,Cognitivelinguistics,Computationallinguistics,Mathematicallinguistics,.,2.Language,2.1Whatislanguage?Duringthelonghistoryoflanguagestudy,manylinguistsorscholarshavetriedtodefinewhatlanguageis.Forexample,linguists,suchasSapir,Block,Hall,Robins,Crystal,Chomsky,triedtoexplainwhatlanguageis.Andeachoftheirdefinitionshasitsstrongpointsaswellasitsweakpoints,yetnoneofthedefinitionsaresatisfactory;foritisreallyverydifficulttogiveacomprehensivedefinitionoflanguage.,.,Atthepresent,mostlinguistsareinbroadagreementaboutthefollowingdefinitiongivenbyWardhaughinhisIntroductiontoLinguistics(1972):Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Shortasitis,thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage.,.,Firstofall,languageisasystem,thatis,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules,forexample,iblkisnotapossiblesoundcombinationinEnglish,andBeenhehashereisnotanacceptablesentenceinEnglish,either.Iflanguagewerenotconstructedaccordingtocertainrules,itcouldnotbelearnedandusedconsistently.Second,languageisarbitrary.Thereisnodirectconnectionbetweenthelinguisticformandthethingitrefersto.,.,Third,languageisvocal.Theprimarymediumoflanguageissound(speech).Asweknow,languageisabstractanditisrealizedintwoforms:speechandwriting.Amongthetwomediaoflanguage,speechisprimaryforthefollowingreasons:1)Speechhasahistoryofabout100,000yearswhilewritinghasonlyahistoryofseveralthousands.2)Therearestillsomecommunitiesthathavespeechwithoutwritingsystem.3)Speechislearnedbeforewriting.,.,4)Mostofthehumancommunicationisdonebyspeech.5)Writtenlanguagecan,toalargeextent,beconvertedintospeechwithoutloss,buttheconverseisnottrue.Fourth,languageisusedforhumancommunicationandlanguageishuman-specific.Thatis,languageisonlypossessedbyhumanbeings,anditmakesitpossibleforitsuserstotalktoeachotherandfulfilltheircommunicativeneeds.,.,2.2Originoflanguage(pp.9-10)Becausenoonecansayhowandwhenlanguageoriginated,therearesomespeculationsaboutit.1)Plato:Therewasa“perfect”language;2)Socrates:Imitationofnaturalsoundswasthebasisfortheoriginoflanguage;3)Mansinstinctiveresponsetocertainexternalstimuliwasthebasisfortheoriginoflanguage;4)Ding-DongTheory:Humanspeechdevelopedfromprimitivemangivingvocalexpressiontotheobjectsheencountered;,.,5)Sing-SongTheory:Languagedevelopedfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise;6)“Poor-Pooh(ExclamationorInterjectional)Theory”stressesthespeakersemotion;7)“Yo-He-HoTheory”:criesutteredduringstrainofwork;8)“Ta-TaTheory”:Languagecamefromthecombinationofcertaingesturesandtonguemovement;,.,9)“Bow-WowTheory”:imitationofanimalcriesandothersoundsheardinnature.Conclusion:Languageoriginates,growsanddevelopsinsociety.2.3DesignfeaturesoflanguageDesignfeaturesarethoseoneswhicharethoughttodistinguishhumanlanguagefromanimalcrysystem.TheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedthefollowing7designfeaturesoflanguage.,.,1)ArbitrarinessThereisnological(intrinsicordirect)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings,orthelinguisticformsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.However,languageisnotentirelyarbitrary;therearecaseswherethereseemstobesomeassociationbetweensoundsandmeaning.,.,Thatis,suchcasesarenotarbitrary,butmotivated.e.g.a.Onomatopoeticwords:p.10;Acatmews,Apigeoncoos,Adogbarks,Acowbellows,Aduckquacks,etc.b.Somecompoundwords:tractordriver,shoe-makerc.Syntaxislessarbitrarythanwords,especiallyinsofaraswordorderisconcerned.d.Theconnectionbetweensoundsandtheirmeaningsismadebyconvention,e.g.Apairoftrousers一条裤子Apairofshirts两件衬衣,.,2)Dualitythepropertyoflanguagewithtwolevelsofstructure,oneofsounds(lowerlevel)andtheotherofmeaning(higherlevel).Atthelowerlevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless(e.g./p/,/,/t/)andwhichcanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords(e.g./pt/).Atthehigherlevel,theunitsofmeaningcanbegroupedandregroupedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.Phonememorphemewordphraseclausesentence,.,3)Productivity/creativityLanguageuserscanutilizelimitedlinguisticrulestoproduceorunderstandinfinitemeaningfullinguisticforms,includingthosetheyhaveneverheardbefore.e.g.Abeautifully-dresseddogisdancingonthehotelbed.他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。（小学生的造句练习）,.,4)Interchangeability/reciprocityThisreferstothefactthatanyspeaker/senderofalinguisticsignalcanalsobealistener/receiver.5)DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces,hereandnow.,.,6)SpecializationLinguisticsignalsdonotnormallyserveanyothertypeofpurpose,suchasbreathingorfeeding.7)CulturalTransmissionAlanguagesystemisnotgeneticallytransmitted,butculturallytransmitted.Thatis,alanguagesystemispassedonfromonegenerationtoanotherbyteachingandlearningratherthanbyinstinctorbirth.,.,2.4Functionsoflanguage1)Differentclassificationsofthefunctionsoflanguage:a.R.Jakobsonsixfunctionsb.M.A.K.Hallidaythreefunctionsc.J.Lyonsthreemainfunctions2)Accordingtothepopularview,languagehasatleastsevenbasicfunctionsthatservepeoplesdailycommunication:,.,1)PhaticPhaticfunctionisthefunctiontoestablishcommunionwithothers.Languageisusedforestablishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactbetweenthespeakersratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas,e.g.greetings,farewells,smalltalk.Forexample,whenapersonasks“Howareyoutoday?”,heisnotreallyinterestedinthehearersstateofhealth,butisexpressinggoodwill.,.,GiveexamplesofphaticcommunicationfromChineseandindicatewhichofthesewouldbeacceptableandwhichwouldcauseoffenceifliterallytranslatedintoEnglish.2)DirectiveLanguageisusedtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.Closethewindow,please.Youshouldleaverightnow.IfIwereyou,Iwouldtakeit.,.,3)InformativeLanguageisusedtotellthefacts,togiveinformationaboutsomething,todescribethematerialworld,ortoreasonthingsout.e.g.Waterboilsat100degreescentigrade.4)InterrogativeLanguageisusedtoinquireinformation.5)ExpressiveLanguageisusedtorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.e.g.MyGod!,Imverysorryaboutit.,.,6)EvocativeLanguageisusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer,e.g.toamuse,toanger,toworryortopleasethehearer.(jokesaredesignedtoamusetheaudience;advertisingisdevisedtourgecustomerstobuythementionedgoods;publicspeechaimstoinfluencepeopleinacertainline.),.,7)PerformativeLanguageisusedtodothingsortoperformactions.Oncertainoccasions,theutteringoftheappropriatewordsisthecentralcomponentintheperformanceoftheact.Actuallyinourdailylife,somethingcanbedoneeitherlinguisticallyornon-linguistically;andothersonlylinguisticallyornon-linguistically.,.,3.Somemajorconceptsinlinguistics,1)DescriptiveandprescriptiveDescriptivegrammaronlydescribesthefactsoflanguage.Prescriptivegrammartriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.2)synchronicanddiachroniclinguisticsSynchroniclinguisticsthestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime.Diachroniclinguisticsthestudyofthewayalanguagechangesoveraperiodoftime.,.,3)LangueandParoleLanguereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.,.,Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.,.,4)CompetenceandperformanceLinguisticcompetencetheunconsciousknowledgeaboutsounds,meaningandsyntaxwhichispossessedbythenativespeakerofalanguage.Concretelyspeaking,Linguisticcompetencemayincludethefollowingabilities:a.theabilitytopointoutwhichcombi