语言学导论ppt课件

.,新编语言学教程刘润清文旭,.,ChapterOneLinguisticsDefinitionLinguisticsdiffersfromothersciencesinthatitbothuseslanguagesasthetoolandtakeslanguagesasitsobjecttostudy.3.PhilologyLinguistics(语文学）（语言学）,Inthemidof19thF.DeSaussure(thefounderofgenerallinguistics）,.,4.Linguisticstudy(1)diachronicstudy历时性学习Studythedevelopmentoflanguageinthecourseoftime.研究语言在不同时期的特点。(2)synchronicstudy共时性学习Studylinguisticsataparticularpointoftime(givenlinguisticstatusorstageofaparticularlanguage)研究语言在同一时期的不同阶段。,.,linguisticstudy:primarysynchronicstudy研究语言难在：languageisalwayschangingpeopleinthesamespeechcommunitydonotsaythesamelanguagefeaturesofalanguage,cantbereplacedquicklyandcompletely.,.,Scopeoflinguistics:PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologyMicrolinguisticsSyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsSociolinguisticsMacrolinguisticsPsycholinguisticsStylistics,.,5.LangueParolelangue语言parole言语,asetofrulesorconventionsanabstractlinguisticsystemineveryspeakersmindnotactuallyspokene.relativelystable,ActualspokenSpecific(concrete)situationaltheuseoftherulesorconventions,Paroleistherealizationofthelangue,.,6.LanguagecompetencelanguageperformanceLADinnate(capacity/intuitivetoacquirelanguage)experienceGrammar(foraparticularlanguage)competenceperformanceisntinnate,workinglikeamachine,As.Materialproduct,.,competence(Grammar)isequaltoeverybodyidealknowledgeoflanguageuserperformanceisntequaltoeverybodyinfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.PerformanceistherealizationoftheknowledgeKnowledgeistheessenceofthecompetenceBehavioristheessenceoftheperformanceCommunicativeCompetence-Hymes,.,7.prescriptivism&descriptivismPrescriptivism:,Setdownakindofform,admitonedialectorvarietyismoresuperiorthananother.Formgrammar,pronunciation,lexicon.Regulatepeoplehowtoactuallyuselanguage.Howthingsshouldbe.Languagepolice,Descriptivism:,Languageislive,changing.Ifoneoflanguageisexpressive,logical,thenitisagoodlanguage.b)observer/recorder/oflanguagehowthingsactuallybe/whatpeopleactuallysay.,.,ChapterTwoLanguageDefinitionoflanguage:asetofrules(eg.Syntacticrules),Awell-organizedsystem,of,arbitrary,vocal,symbols,Usedforhumancommunication,:thereisnologicalandintrinsicconnectionbetweenobjectsandsymbols.,:thesound,spokenlanguage,mostimportantmedium.,:peopleuseittorepresentobjects,ideas,opinionsoractions.,:humanspecific(人类特有）,.,2.DesignfeaturesoflanguageArbitrarinessProductivityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmissionSpecializationinterchangeability,.,3.SocialfunctionsoflanguageCommunicativemeans(themostimportantone)Themeansforconceptualthinkingandrecognitionoftheworld.(3)Thevehicleandtransmitterofculture.languageiscultural-dependantlanguagemirrorsculture,.,4.FunctionsoflanguageincommunicationPhaticDirectivefunctionInformativefunctionExpressivefunctionInterrogativefunctionEvocativefunctionPerformativefunction,.,ChapterThreePhonetics:soundoflanguage,Definitionofphonetics:Thescientificstudyofspeechsounds,whichareusedbyallhumanlanguagesorbyaparticularlanguagetorepresentmeanings.Branches:(1)articulatoryphonetics(发音（声）语音学)：Thestudyoftheproductionofthesound.(2)accusticphonetics(声学语音学）：concernedwithphysicalpropertiesofthesesounds.,.,(3)Auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学）:concernedwiththereception/perceptionofthehearer.3.InternationalPhoneticsAssociation(IPA)InternationalPhoneticsAlphabet(IPA)国际音标,.,Bilabials/p/b/m/w/Labiodentals/f/v/Alveolars/d/t/s/z/n/r/l/Velars/g/k/Interdentals/Glottals/h/Palatals/t/d/j/,.,Vowelsapproximants(延续音）non-continuantscontinuants=glidesliquidsstops/plosiveaffricatesfricativeswl=tsfjrnasaloraldzvhmpktnbgdsibilants(hissing)sonorantsobstruents(阻塞音）(voiced)响声,.,PalatalVoicedfricative,zalveolarvoicedfricative,ffricativevoicelessobstruentlabiodentals,wglideapproximantsonorantvoicedlabiovelars,.,VowelsTheheightofthetonguehighvowels,midvowels,lowvowelsThepositionofthetonguefrontvowels,centralvowels,backvowelslip-roundingunroundedvowels,roundedvowelsTensenessofthetonguetensevowels,laxvowels,.,Roundedvowels:/u:/u/ou/:/Unroundedvowels:/i:/i/e/ei/:/Tensevowels:/i:/u:/ei/ou/a:/:/:/Laxvowels:/i/u/e/,.,ChapterFourPhonology1.Definition:thescienceorthescientificstudyofthesystemandthepatternsofthespeechsoundsoflanguages.2.Phonetics(语音学）：howthesoundsproduced,transmitted,received.3.Phonemes(音位）：speechsoundsegmentsthatcandistinguishorcontrastwordsinsoundandmeaningarecalledphonems.,.,Phone:(音素）aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegmentinthephoneticallyrealizationofaphoneme.ph2versionsofonephoneme/p/Phones2realizationofonephonemep=Thenumberofallophones(音位变体）islimited.Allophones:Thedifferentphoneswhichrepresentorderivefromonephonemearecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.,.,一个音位的不同变化形式音位变体每一个可以读出的音叫做音素。一个音如果没有读出叫做音位。4.Phoneticrepresentation语音表达phonemicrepresentation音位表达Phoneticrepresentation：ofutterancesshowswhatthespeakersknowaboutthepronunciationofutterances.Phonemicrepresentation:oftheutterancesshowswhattheSpeakersknowabouttheabstractorunderlyingphonemicrepresentationofwords.,.,5.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentwordsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonephonemewhichoccursinthesameplace,theyaresaidtoformaminimalpair.6.Freevariations:thedifferentpronunciationsofonewordarecalledfreevariations.,.,7.Complementarydistribution:whentwoormoreallophonesofonephonemeneveroccurinthesamelinguisticenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.8.Syllables(音节）:asyllableisthesmalleststructuredsoundunitmadeupofarule-governedsequenceofphonemes.peak音节峰peakSyllableonset节前辅音kncoda音节尾onsetcoda,.,closedsyllable:withacodaopensyllable:withoutacodaIfawordbeginswitha/L/r/,itmustbefollowedbyavowel.2./cantbethefirstphonemeoftheword.eg./ik/3./e/u/laxvowelscantendasyllable有多少个元音就有多少音节。4.sonorityscale响音节,.,mostsonorious5vowel4approximant3nasals2fricatives1oralstops/plosivesleastsonorious5.onsetpeakcodaCCCVCCCCeg.springsprieg.sixthssikss,.,/p/+consonant+alveolar/k/-voiced/s/+fricative/t/+stop+consonantal-vocalic+sibilant-vocalic+voiced,.,ChapterFiveMorphology1.word:isthesmallestmeaningfulunitwhichcanbeusedindependently.(1)词汇的语法单位sentenceclausephrasewordmorpheme,.,(2)Featuresofwordsstabilityrelativeuninterruptabilityminimalfreeform(3)Classificationofwordsopenclass:whosemembershipisnotlimited,fixed,canberegularlyexpanded.Eg.Nouns,verbs,adjectives.closedclass:theycanteasilyexpandtheirnewmembership.eg.Conj,pron.Num,articles,.,Variablewords:orderedandregularseriesofgrammaticalforms.Eg.study-studying-studied-studiesInvariablewords:thosewhichhavenoinflectiveendings.eg.Seldom/always/oftengrammaticalwords(functionwords)虚词：expressgrammaticalmeanings.Eg.Conj,pron,preplexicalwords(contentwords)实词：expresslexicalmeanings.Eg.Nouns,verbs,adj.,adv.,.,(4)Wordclassnewclassesparticles小品词，助词to-infinitivemarker不定式符号not-negativemarker否定符号subordinate:unitofaverbalphrase.Eg.Goonauxiliaries助动词will,do,have,hada)inversionformb)negativeformAuxiliariesaredifferentfromverbEg.Will-willnotverbdont,.,proform代词形式，替代形式pro-adjectives代形容词，pro-verb,pro-adverb,pro-locative代方位词eg.Myshoesisblack,soishers.HestudiesbetterthanIdo.Hehopestheexamwillbecanceled,Ihopeso.Thebroomisthere,inthecorner.Proform:awordcantaketheplaceofcertainwords.,.,determiners限定词pre-determiners前限定词：all,both,half,twice,3timescentral-determiners中限定词：a,the,this,that,these,thosepost-determiners后限定词：ordinalnumerals,序列词generalordinals序数词.Determiners:referstothewordswhichcanbeusedtomodifytheheadnounofanounphrase.,.,2.MorphologyDefinitionMorpheme:isthesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunit.Morph:eachofthephoneticformsorvariantsisamorph.allomorph1.incomplementarydistributionfeatures2.havethesame/commonmeaning3.occurinparallelformationholdthesameposition/s/(morpheme)allomorph:/-z/-s/-iz/-ai-/-i:-/morphmorphmorphmorph,.,TypesofmorphemeFreemorpheme(root)自由语素：usuallycarriesthebasicalmeaning,canstandbyitselfasaword.Boundmorpheme(affix)黏着语素：italwaysbeapartofaword.Freemorphemescanbedividedintotwocategories:Lexicalmorphemes:thesetofordinarynouns,verbsandadjectiveswhichcarrythecontentofmessagesweconvey.Eg.Book,desk,happy2.Functionalmorphemes:consistsofthefunctionalwordsinthelanguagesuchasconj.,articles,prepandpron.Eg.If,when,on,above,.,Boundmorphemesareactuallyaffixes.Affix:prefix:affixescanbejoinedtothebeginningoftherootorstem.Eg.Im-impossible,un-unluckyinfix:morphemesthatareinsertedintoothermorphemes.Eg.um-sulat-sumulatsuffix:affixescanbejoinedtotheendoftherootorstem.Eg.Kind-kindness,teach-teacher,.,Boundmorphemescanbeclassifiedinto:1.Inflectionalaffix/morpheme:justshowgrammaticalmeaning.eg.Teacherslearning2.Derivationalaffix/morpheme:isanaffixwhichisusedtoformaderivative.eg.remarry,.,3.WordformationStemeg.FriendshipsrootsuffixstemdistemperedrootsuffixstemMonomorphenic单语素中stem=rooteg:song,.,stemisthepartthatisleftafterremovingalltheinflectionalmorphemes.rootisthepartwhichisleftafteralltheaffixesareremovedinflectionalaffixesderivationalaffixes(2)WaysofwordformationDerivation派生法（衍生法）：isawaytoaddaffixestorootorstemtoformnewwords.prefixderivative衍生词infixeg.understand-understandablesuffixhappy-unhappy,.,Wordclassunchangedun-happy-unhappydis-like-dislikeb)Wordclasschangedverb-nounn-verb-er/-or/-ize/-fycompoundingCompoundsmadeupofsamecategoryn+n-bookstoreadj.+adj.-white-hotred-hotprep.+prep.-intowithinontouponb)Compoundsmadeupofdifferentcategory,.,Partofspeechofthecompoundfallstothe2ndelement.eg.Scarecrow稻草人n.v.n.Partofspeechofthecompoundfallsto1stelement.eg.Brother-inlawpasser-bylooker-onc)Thegrammaticalrelationshipbetweentheelementsofacompound.1.coordinative并列的bookstore,deaf-mute,classroom2.qualifier-head偏正的reading-room,snow-white3.subject-predicate主谓的man-made,sunrise,spoon-feed4.verb+object动宾的callgirl,playboy,.,d)Spellingofcompounds1.thereisnospace.Eg.Football2.thereisahyphen.Eg.Snow-white3.thereisaspace.Eg.Red-lightdistrictmeaningofthecompoundsisntthesumofthemeaningofalltheelements.Eg.red-meat牛肉，羊肉white-lie善意的谎言Red-cap空宪兵blue-stocking清高女子Blue-blood贵族血统whiteelephant大而不实用东西JackRobinson平常人,.,conversion:isthewayinwhichwegetnewwordsbychangingtheirpartsofspeech.abbreviation(shorteningofclipping):isthewaytomakeawordshortenedorclipped.1.cutthefinalpart.Eg.Photo-photograph2.cuttheinitialpart.Eg.Airplane-plane3.cutboththeinitialandthefinalparteg.Influenza-flurefrigerator-fridgeBackformationeg.Toburgle(fromburglar)tobeg(frombeggar)toedit(fromeditor)tolaze(fromlazy),.,sentence-condensationeg.touch-me-notstay-at-homeforget-me-notblending1.initialpartof1st+finalpartof2ndeg.Motel,smog,botle2.initialpartoftwowordseg.Digicomdigitalcomputertelexteleprinterexchangerinitialism:somenewwordsarecomposedofthefirstlettersofaseriesofwordsandpronouncedbysayingeachletterinthem.Eg.CD,ATM,.,Acronym:somenewwordsareformedfromthefirstlettersofaseriesofwords.Theypronouncedassinglewords.eg.Laser(lightwaveamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation),.,Chaptersixsyntax:structureofsentencesSyntax:isapartofthegrammarofalanguage,dealingwiththestructuresofsentencesandtherulesgoverningthem.Partsofspeech/wordclass/formclassa)wordsbelongtothesamepartsofspeechhavesomedifferences.b)onewordcanbelongtodifferentpartsofspeech.c)Noun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,pronoun,conjuction,.,(2)Howtojudgepartsofspeecha)accordtomeaningb)distributionpositioninasentencec)inflection(3)Grammaticalcategory:grammaticalmeaningscanbeclassifiedintodifferentcategories,calledgrammaticalcategories.Inotherwords,agrammaticalcategoryistheclassificationofgrammaticalmeanings.Thecommonlyfoundgrammaticalcategoriesareperson,number,gendercase,tense,aspect,voice,moodandsoon.,.,Personthefirstperson,thesecondperson,thethirdpersonthedistinctionbetweenthethreepersonsmaybemadebyappropriatesubjectivepronouns.2.Numbersingular+plural3.Gendermasculine+feminine+neuter4.Casenominative主格whichmarksthesubjectofthesentenceaccusative宾格whichmarkstheobjectofatransitiveverbdative与格whichmarkstheindirectobjectablative离格whichmarkstheinstrumentwithwhichsthisdone,.,genitive所有格whichmarksthepossessionvocative呼格whichisthecaseofaddressEg.Madam,Iwantedtogethimthegirlsbookwiththecard.vocativenominativedativegenitiveaccusativeablativeHowtochangecase?Inflectionalending.Eg.teacher-teachersDistribution/position.Wordordereg.JohnbiteJohn.JohnbiteTom.3.Accordingtotheverbandprepositioneg.Illgowiththeboy.,.,5.Tensepastpresentfuture6.Aspectperfectprogressivenon-progressiveverb=stativeverbeg.Know,hate,love,believe,have7.Voiceactivevoice+passivevoicepassivization:a)theactivesubjectpassiveagentb)theactiveobjectpassivesubjectc)theprep.“by”isintroducedbeforetheagent,.,8.Moodimperativeindicativesubjunctive2.SyntagmaticrulesAsentenceisformedaccordingtophonological,morphological,syntacticandsemanticrules.Phonologicalrules:usedtoformmeaningfulmorphemes.Morphologicalrules:usedtoconjoinmorphemesintowords.Syntacticrules:usedtoformphrases,clausesandsentences.Semanticrules:appliedtothemakingofmeaningfulsentences.,.,Combinationofmorphemesintowordscompounding,derivation,abbreviation,back-formation,blending,sentence-condensation,acronymization,conversionb)Basicpatternofcombinationofwordssubject-predicate主谓verb-object动宾verb-complement动补coordinative并列modifier-head偏正（2）constituentstructure,.,ICAorICanalysisICA(immediateconstituentanalysis)Definition:asentencecanbesegmentedintothesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunits,suchamethodofcuttingsentencesorwordsintotheirmeaningfulcomponentpartsiscalledICA.,.,IC(immediateconstituent):thecomponentsresultingfromeachdivisionofaunitaretermedIC.Ultimateconstituents:theresultantsegmentationsorminimalgrammaticalunitsarecalled,.,S:NP+VP(+Adv)VP:Vtr.+NPNP:Art.+N+(PP)PP:prep+NPAdv.:adverbsofplace,etcPPVtr.:buy,sellN:man,carArt.:a,an,the.etcPrep.:in,on,etc,.,HowtoICABracketTreediagram树形图3.SyntacticrulesT-Ggrammar=transformational-generativegrammar(Universalgrammar)Syntacticcomponent句法形Phonologicalcomponent语音音Semanticcomponent语义义,.,Functionsofsyntacticrules:Theyaccountforthe“grammaticality”ofsentencesTheydeterminetheorderingofmorphemesandwordsTheyrevealstructuralambiguitiesofsentencesTheydeterminethegrammaticalrelationsbetweendifferentpartsofasentence.,.,Ambiguity:somesentencesinthesurfacestructurearesyntacticallyambiguous.Theambiguityisnotsoeasytobeaccountedforbythetraditionalgrammar,butcanbeaccountedforbytheT-Ggrammar.WewillseehowtheT-Ggrammaraccountsforambiguityandthegrammaticalrelationsbetweenconstituentsinasentence.,.,Ambiguitystructureambiguitylexicalambiguity,.,sentence:isacombinationofwordswellarrangedbothsyntacticallyandsemanticallysoastoconstituteagrammaticallycompletesenseunit.declarative陈述句simpleSentenceimperative祈使句orcompoundinterrogative疑问句complexexclamatory感叹句compoundcomplex,.,Chaptersevensemantics:meaningsystemoflanguage1.SomeviewsofmeaningNamingtheory:Platoawordisaname,alabelinourmindorinourexperience.Note:thetheoryhasitsownproblems,conj.Prep.Standforwhat?“tree”namestheobjecttreeintherealworld.referent(指称对象）,.,(2)Conceptualism:Ogden&Richards“semantictriangle”(abstractideainourmind)thought(concept)Symbol.referent(theword)(theobject)Awordhasaconceptorideainpeoplesmindassociatedwithit.Eg.Whentheword“chair”isspoken,theconceptofchairiscalledupinthemindofthehearer.Thereisnodirectlinkbetweensymbolsandreferent,thatis,betweenlanguageandtheworld,thelinkisviathought,theconceptinourmind.,.,(3)Behaviorism:BloomfieldSRStimulusresponse(hunger)(shewouldhavemadesbgetanappleforher)SR.SR(hunger)(shewantstogettheapple)(saysthtoJack)(gettheapple),.,(4)Contentualism语境论Firth“Weshallknowtheworldbythecompanyitkeeps.”Thecontextdeterminesthemeaning.linguisticcontextContextsituationalcontext,.,Forexample:Idontlikeher.Sheistallandthinandmoveslikeacrane.Idolikeher.Sheistallandthinandmoveslikeacrane.Supposethatwearestandingbyariver,andIsay“Iwasnearthatbankyesterday.”youcertainlyunderstandthebankasa“riverbank”,nota“financialinstitution”,butifweareontheWallStreet,themeaningischanged.,.,(5)Meaningastruthconditions.真值TThebachelorhasasonofhis.Hisbrotherwastheonlychildofhisparents.,.,SenseandReference意义和所指Sensereferstoanyofthevariousmeaningsconveyedbyaword,phraseorsentence.Referencereferstotherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementsandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Note:Therearesomesentencesthathavesensebutmayhavenoreference.ThepresidentofJapanisahandsomeyoungman.,.,Sense:intra-linguisticrelationship-abstractpropertiesofanobjectReference:extralinguisticrelationship-objectcarryingtheseproperties.everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.eg.“but”havesense,noreference,.,linguisticformshavesomesense,butdifferentreference.eg.Theteacheristeaching.Theteacherisstayingabroad.linguisticformswiththesamereferencemaydifferinsense.eg.themorningstartheeveningstarVenus金星（启明星）,.,sometimes,somesentenceshavesense,butnoreference.Eg.ThekingofFranceisbald.ThepresidentofJapanisveryhandsome.,.,SeventypesofmeaningConceptualmeaning概念意义：centralfactorinlinguisticcommunicationEg.Woman+humanmale+adultboy+human+maleadult2.Connotativemeaning内涵意义：referstoemotionalassociation.Eg.Mother:kindness,.,3.Socialorstylisticmeaning:referstodifferentsocialcontextsorcircumstances.Formal/informalliteral/figurativeEg.我的父亲/俺爹4.affective/emotionalmeaning:expressionoffeelingandattitudeofpersoncommentary/derogatoryEg.Shutup!挑唆,.,5.reflectedmeaning:referstothemeaningwhichisexpressedthroughtheassociationwithanothersenseofthesamewordorexpression.Eg.Gayhappyhomosexual玉树金钱6.Collocativemeaning搭配意义Big/largebigfamily:withalotofchildrenlargefamily:withalotofgenerationsfullmoon满月completemoon,.,7.Thematicmeaning主题意义Theme主位Rheme述位Eg.Iboughtthebookyesterday.themerhemeYesterday,Iboughtabook.themerheme,.,4.Majorsenserelationsofwords.Synonymy(similarity,sameness)perfectsynonymeg.unvoiced/voicelesspartial(relative)synonymeg.Home/househot/warm,.,Thesourcesofthesynonymsnativeelementeg.Pretty/lovelyfast/speedyvariantsanddialectseg.Luggage/baggageforeignelementeg.End/finishheaven/skyfigurativeuseofwordseg.Walksoflife/occupationeuphemismsandvulgarismseg.Todie/topassaway,.,(2)Homonymy同音同形异义（现象）isaword