英语词汇学词义的变化PPT课件

.,1,第五章词义的变化ChangeofMeaning,外语学院徐红新,.,2,Whenawordlosesitsoldmeaningandcomestorefertosomethingaltogetherdifferent,theresultisachangeofwordmeaning.“Changeofmeaningisacommonplace,andindeeditwouldappeartobefundamentalinlivinglanguage,almosteverywordweusetodayhasaslightlydifferentmeaningfromtheoneithadacenturyago:andacenturyagoithadaslightlydifferentmeaningfromtheoneithadacenturybeforethat.”_Quirk1963:123-124,.,3,Causesofchangesinwordmeaning1.theworldischanging社会是语言的外部因素（索绪尔，1980：43），但是社会又不是一般的外部因素，而是客体世界中最重要的外部因素，因为语言是特殊的社会现象，语言跟社会诸因素有千丝万缕的关系。1.1旧词添新义carship1.2科技发展光环1.3普通义位与科技义位间的转变menu,window1.4社会集团社会地位的变化governor,lord1.5经济的发展狗、马1.6民族或种族矛盾的原因Dutch,.,4,2.Humanbeingischanging2.1认识水平在提高heart,brain2.2思想观念的更新天堂、老板、演员、士兵2.3心理感情因素求新：净面、洗脸、飚客、粉丝,闪族求美：春风、教室求省：机票、机场、机群、客机、班机goldmetal求雅：euphemism下岗、老、战略性撤退、穷circumlocutionliesteallazy感情因素（移情）：冤家,.,5,3.Thelanguageischanging3.1semanticreasonharvestautumnmotor左右红白赤3.2grammaticalreason廉颇老矣，尚能饭否？3.3pragmaticreason斗闻,.,6,a.Extensionofmeaning,b.Restrictionofmeaning,c.Degenerationofmeaning,d.Elevationofmeaninge.Transformationofmeaning,词义的变化,.,7,ExtensionofMeaning,Itisalsocalledwideningofmeaningorgeneralization.Itsaprocessbywhichawordwhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralized.,.,8,FourkindsofextensionA.Fromspecifictogeneral,B.Frompropernounstocommonnouns,C.Fromconcretetoabstract,D.Fromtechnicaltermstogeneralwords,.,9,A.Fromspecifictogeneral从特指到泛指,Example,Picture:originally:apaintingordrawing,.,10,Thepresentmeaning,aphotographacinematicpictureanx-raypictureaTVpicturearadio-telescopepictureanypicture,.,11,MoreExamples,rubbish,Originally:rubble(碎石）,Now:anythingworthless,.,12,B.Frompropernounstocommonnouns,Antonomasia换称,theuseofapropernountoconveyageneralidea,.,13,Example,Sandwich:Itnowdenotesapopularfastfood.ItoriginatesfromJohnMontague,FourthearlofSandwichin18th-centuryEngland.Hewassofondofgamblingthatheoftenforgothismeals.Heoftenorderedslicesofbreadwiththickpiecesofroastbeefstuffedbetweenthembebroughttohimsohecouldeatwhileplaying.Later,peopleusedhisnametorefertoallsimilarfood.,.,14,GreekMyth:akingpunishedforhismisdeedsbyhavingtostandinwaterthatrecedeswhenhetriestodrinkitandunderfruitthatmovesawayashereachesforit.,Tantalus,Tantalize挑逗,.,15,Argus百眼巨人,Greekmyth:agiantwith100eyes.Afterhewaskilled,hiseyesweretransferredtothePeacockstail,Argus-eyed:keen-sighted;Observant明察秋毫的,Example:WehavedecideditisimpossibletocheatwhenthatArgus-eyedpro-fessorgivesanexam,.,16,Narcissus水仙花,Narcissus:Greekmyth:abeautifulyouthwhofellinlovewithhisref-lectioninapool,hencetheword:narcissismandthemeaning:aninterestinoradmirationforoneself.,.,17,Munchausen说大话的人,HewasaGermansoldier.AfterhisretirementfromhisserviceintheRussianArmyagainsttheTurks,hetoldexaggeratedstoriesofhiscampaigningadventures,thusthemeaning:apersonwhoboasts;exaggerated.,.,18,Pinchbeck冒牌货,ChristopherPinchbeckwasanBritishjeweler.Heinventedanalloyofcopper,zincformerlyusedforcheapjewelery,hencethemeaning:specious似是而非的andspurious伪造的goods.,.,19,Frankenstein,FrankensteinisacharacterinthenovelwrittenbyfamousBritishwomanwriterMaryW.Shelley.Heisamedicalresearcher,whocreatedarobotmonster,broughtittolifeandfinallywaskilledbythemonster.,.,20,“Watergate”源指美国华盛顿特区综合大厦。1972年6月17日夜间，共和党争取总统连任委员会有关人员潜入大厦内民主党全国委员会总部而被捕，暴露了共和党政府在总统竞选中的非法活动，导致美国历史上首次总统辞职，现泛指“丑闻”。,专有名词普通化与特定的历史事件有关：,.,21,LouisPasteurisaFrenchchemistandbiologist.Hisresearchesshowingthatthefermentation发酵ofmilkandwinewasduetothemultiplicationofbacteriaandothermicroorganismsledtothediscoveryoftheroleofmicroorganisminhumanandanimaldisease.Fromthesefindingshedevelopedimmunizationbyinoculation免疫接种ofattenuatedmicrobes微生物,andtheprocessofpasteurization巴氏消毒法.,专有名词普通话与特定的科技事件有关：,.,22,Pasteurizationisaprocesswhichrendersmilkfreeofdisease-producingbacteriaandhelptopreventitfromspoilingwithoutdestroyingthevitaminsorchangingthetaste.Itinvolvesheatingthemilkto1450-168Ffor30minutes.Topasteurizeistosterilizebypasteurization.,.,23,JamesWatt（瓦特）isaScottishengineerwhomadefundamentalimprovementstotheNewcomensteamengine,leadingtothewidespreaduseofsteampowerinmines,factoriesetc.InpartnershipwithMathewBoulton,Wattbuiltmayenginesattheirfoundry铸造车间inBirmingham.Theunitofpowerisnamedafterhim.,.,24,Wordsofthisgroupalsoincludeampere（安培）,farad（法拉）,ohm（欧姆）,volt（伏特）,watt（瓦特）fromFrenchphysicistAmpere,BritishphysicistFaraday,GermanphysicistOhm,ItalianphysicistVoltaandScottishinventorWattrespectively,.,25,这类专有名词常为商标专有名。Walkman原来是Sony公司“随身听”的注册商标，在激烈的商业活动竞争中脱颖而出成为名牌。由于它家喻户晓，使它在人们心目中失去了一种专利商标，被用户作为“随身听”的代名词去泛指一切“随身听”产品。,与经济活动有关：,.,26,Wordslikenylon（尼龙）,orlon（奥纶）,dacron（涤纶）,rayon（人造丝）wereoriginallytradenamesandarenowusedtodenotethefourtypesoffabric.,.,27,生活节奏的加快，生活竞争的加剧使得体育专业术语大量被用于日常生活之中：,与体育活动有关：,.,28,coverthebases:补垒:可泛指“仔细考虑问题、建议、事情等每一个细节以确保万无一失”。,beoutinleftfield:棒球术语：左外场，位于外场防卫位置，语义泛化后指：“失去理智的”，“错误的”等。,.,29,strikeout:棒球术语，“三击未中，击球员出局”，现可指“努力失败”。loadthebases:跑满垒：形容“任务即将被完成”。hitahomerun:本垒打：泛指“取得巨大成功”。,.,30,throwacurveball:打出曲线球，这种球在接手接球一刹那会拐弯飞出：形容“采用欺骗手段使某人大吃一惊”。calltheplay:作裁判：形容“承担有决定权的职责”。,.,31,runwithit:带球向得分点跑去：形容“开始实施一个计划或开始着手某个事务”等。,.,32,touchdown:攻方持球触地，按照规定，攻方在对方端区持球触地可得6分，现在可用来形容“辉煌的成就”。,.,33,Svengali(斯文加利)系英语小说家GeorgeduMaurier所著小说Trilby中的音乐家。Heisapersonwhocontrolsanothersmind,usuallywithsinisterintentions.,专有名词充当普通动词，例如：,Hesvengaliedusintoacceptinghisopinions.,他采用斯文加利式的骗术使我们接受了他的观点。,.,34,TheUnitedStatesisraisingaFrankensteinbyprovidinghardwaretothatcountry.（美国向那个国家提供军事武器，到头来只会作法自毙。）Frankenstein是英国作家MaryWollstonecraft-Shelley于1818年所著小说中的生理学研究专家。他创造了一个怪物，结果被这个怪物所毁灭。,英语普通化专有名词的常见特征：专有名词充当普通名词使用，例如：,.,35,Gerrymander:todividetheconstituencies（选区）ofavotingareasoastogiveonepartyanunfairadvantage;tomanipulateoradapttoonesadvantage.,专有名词与普通名词拼缀构成动词，例如：,CaliforniasRepublicanlegislaturegerrymandered（为己党利益擅改选区）the26thtomakeitoverwhelminglyDemocraticandturnfouradjoiningdistrictsintoRepublicanstrongholds.,.,36,“Gerrymander”comesfromElbridgeGerry,aU.S.politician+(sala)mander(蝾螈；）;fromthesalamander-likeoutlineofanelectoraldistrictreshapedforpoliticalpurposeswhileGerrywasgovernorofMassachusetts,.,37,Hooverize:vt节约（粮食等）由Hoover+ize派生而来。,专有名词与动词词缀连用构成派生动词,?,.,38,HerbertClarkHooverwasaU.s.Statesman,31stpresidentoftheU.S.HeorganizedreliefforEuropeduringandafterWorldWarI.AspresidenthemadegreateffortstoreducegovernmentexpensesandlostfavourafterhisfailuretoalleviatetheeffectsoftheDepression.,.,39,Whenpropernounsarecommonized,manyofthemhavelosttheiroriginalidentity:theinitiallettermaynotbecapitalizedasalreadyshown;thesewordscantakesuffixesic,ian,-al,-ist,-ese,-ish,-esquetoformdifferentwords.,.,40,这类专有名词转为普通动词在科技英语中尤为常见，尤其是商品名牌商标的动词化，例如：,“Hoover”,“Whiteout”,“Mace”arethetrademarksrespectivelyforatypeofvacuumcleaner“真空吸尘器”，awhitecorrectingfluid“白色涂改液”，andaliquidcausingtearsandnausea,usedasasprayforriotcontrol,“梅斯催泪毒气”,.,41,tomacedemonstrators向游行示威者喷射梅斯气,tohooverafloor用真空吸尘器吸地板上的灰尘,towhiteoutamistake用白色涂改液涂改错误,.,42,专有名词通过转类法转为普通形容词:,MickeyMouse:thenameofacartooncharactercreatedbyWalterDisney,knownforhissimple-mindedattitudes,hencethemeaning:ineffective,trivialandinsignificant,.,43,例如：Twodaysfora226-mileraceisMickeyMouse.两天跑完226英里的赛程是轻而易举的事。,amickeymousecollegecourse一门容易学的大学课程,.,44,专有名词的普通化现象在现代英语中层出不穷。这种普通化现象在经济领域会带来一系列的司法纠纷。在政治领域也会带来一些消极的后果。,.,45,在美国，“Coke”,“Kleenex”（可丽舒面巾纸）,“Xerox”（施乐影印）,“Jell-o”（吉露果冻）“ScotchTape（透明胶封口）”为阻止商标名的普通化先后诉诸法庭，如果说以上商标名通过法律途径在一定的程度上保护了自己的产品名的“专有”。,.,46,正因如此，越来越多的厂家开始在商标名的设计上标新立异。从语言形式上试图杜绝自己商品名的语义泛化现象。从商标名的专有名词普通化分析结果来看，有以下三种情况：,.,47,1）专有名词商标名具有浓厚的描绘性特征：DryIce:干冰，固态二氧化碳ShreddedWheat:脆麦面条MineralOil:矿物油CornFlakes:玉米片,.,48,2）专有名词具有半描绘性特征：Cellophane:塞璐玢；玻璃纸Escalator:电梯Zipper:拉链,.,49,节约原则是指人们用商标名作为产品的代名词。人们之所以这样做是因为商标名相对于产品名，前者可能更简便，且易上口。长此以往，导致商标名失去专有名词特征。,3）节约原则,.,50,如：Sanka牌的“decaffeinated（脱去咖啡因的）coffee”;Teflon牌的“Polytetrafluoroethylene聚四氟乙烯coating”。商标名“Sanka”以及“Teflon”在语符系统上比较简单，前者代替后者不可避免,.,51,为了防止专有名词普通化，生产厂家采取了一系列措施保护商标名的专一性。,一是在拼写上采取反常规形式，在不该大写的地方使用大写形式，如：TelePrompter(电子提词机)；,.,52,二是使其商标名作为专有形容词使用，如：Jell-ogelatin(果冻胶)。,.,53,这些措施也很难有效保护这些专有名词的普通化趋势，因为语言使用者只要对这些专有名词稍加改动便可以使它们至少在形式上类似普通词。现在，字典已收入了“teleprompter提词装置”以及“jello凝胶物”便是很好的例子。,.,54,C.FromConcretetoAbstractGrasp抓住、掌握Place广场、地位Thing集会、,.,55,Matter:originallymeanttimber,thehardpartofatree,Nowithasalotofabstractmeanings.,.,56,1)Theworldismadeofmatter.,Substance(s)ofwhichthephysicalthingismade,2)Thematterinyouressayisgood.,Materialforthoughtorexpression,.,57,3)ThisisamatterIknowlittleabout.,Somethinginwhichattentionisgiven,Itmadenomattertohimthathisbrotherlostallhismoney.,Ofimportance,.,58,D.Fromtechnicaltermstogeneralwords:,Countdown:thecountingaloudofnumbersinreverseorderbeforesth.happens,esp.Beforeaspacecraftislaunched.,.,59,Now:emergencysituation十分危急的情况；行将摊牌的局面,ThatwouldleadtoacountdowninCambodia柬埔寨.,.,60,Feedback:itoccursinamachineorsystemwhenpartofthepower,soundorinformationproducedgoesbackintothemachineorsystem.,.,61,Now:response,Thereaderfeedbackwasgenerallyfavourable.,.,62,Fallout:theradiationthataffectsaplaceafteranuclearexplosion:放射性尘埃,Now:consequence,HepredictedthatthefalloutfromWatergatewouldhitbothparties.,.,63,Firestorm:Ittakesplacewhenabombexplodes;strongwindsrushintoittotaketheplaceofthehotairthatisrising,causingtheblazetoburnuncontrollably.核弹引起的大火暴,Now:strongreaction,.,64,TherevelationsabouttheCIAsactivitiesinChilebrokeinthepressjustasthefirestormovertheNixonpardonputanabruptendtoCongressshoney-moonwithGeraldford.,报界揭发了中央情报局在智利的活动，与此同时，赦免尼克松所引起的强烈反应使得国会同杰拉德。福特的蜜月猝然终止。,.,65,RestrictionofMeaning,.,66,Examples,liquor,OldMeaning,Specializedmeaning,liquid,alcoholicdrink,.,67,example,meat,OldMeaning,SpecializedMeaning,food,Fleshofanimals,.,68,word,Oldmeaning,Specialization,disease,discomfort,illness,poison,drink,Poisonousdrink,wife,woman,marriedwoman,accident,event,unluckyevent,girl,Achild,Afemalechild,.,69,word,Oldmeaning,Specialization,starve,die,Dieofhunger,stink,Anysmell,Badsmell,success,Result,agoodresult,corpse,ahumanoranimalbodylivingordead,adeadbodyesp.ofahumanbeing,.,70,现代英语中把日常生活用语转用到科技方面，这也是词义缩小的一种现象。,.,71,Acleanroom和awhiteroom均为日常生活用语，现指用于精密零件制造的“绝尘室”,“Acleanroom”or“awhiteroom”,increasinglybecomesshoptalk.,清洁室或称白室正日益变成专家们的行话。,.,72,ElevationofMeaning,Wordsoftenrisefromahumblebeginningtoapositionofgreaterimportance.Thischangeiscalledelevationofmeaning.,.,73,Pioneer:footsoldierwhoclearedthewayforanyarmybyfallingtrees,etc.,Apersonwhogoesbefore,preparingthewayforothers,asascientistdoingexploratorywork,.,74,Fond:foolish,Tenderandaffectionate,.,75,minister,Old:anattendantNew:apersonattheheadofadepartmentofastate.,.,76,marshall,Originally:Ahorsetender,PresentMeaning:Officerofhighestrank,.,77,craftsman,Old:apersongoodatcheatingNow:amanwhodoesaskilledjob,usu,withhands,.,78,shrewd,Oldmeaning:wicked;malicious,Now:keen-witted;cleverorsharpinpracticalaffairs,.,79,nimble,Oldmeaning:quickatstealingpresentmeaning:quickofcomprehension,.,80,见125页ElevationofMeaning,.,81,Degradationofmeaning,Wordswithacommendatorymeaningmaybecomeoneswithaderogatorysense.Thisiscalleddegradationofmeaningordeterioration,.,82,FourKindsofDegradationofMeaning,A.Awordfallsintodisreputebecauseofsocialprejudice,.,83,Example,Villainoldmeaning:afarmerpresentMeaning:amanguiltyofevildeeds,.,84,clown,Oldmeaning:apeasantpresentMeaning:amanwhoisclumsyandbehavesstupidly,.,85,wench,Oldmeaning:acountrygirlpresentmeaning:agirlofloosecharacter,.,86,boor,Oldmeaning:afarmhand,presentmeaning:onewhoisrough,impoliteandclumsy,.,87,churl,Oldmeaning:afarmhandpresentmeaning:onewhoisrudeandunfriendly,.,88,B.Awordbecomeslessrespectablebecauseofeuphemism,Examples见127页,.,89,C.Middletermswhichareneutralinmeaningandtakeonfavorableorunfavorablemeaningaccordingtocontext,Examples见128页,.,90,Fortune,isamiddleterm,becauseitmaybeeithergoodorbadbuttheadjectivefortunatehasapositivevalue.Sowiththewordluck.Thewordreferstogoodorbadluck,especiallytogoodluck.Buttheadjectiveluckyonlydenotes“havingorbringinggoodluck”.,.,91,D.Sometimesawordshowsdeteriorationinsomeofitsuses,butmaintainitselfinothers.,execute,Tokillsb.asalawfulpunishment,Tocarryoutanorder,aplan,apieceofwork,.,92,4-2-3SemanticChangesfromtheLiteralUseofwordstoTheirFigurativeUse,1.Metaphor,.,93,Weknowthatwordsareusedintwoways:literallyandfiguratively.Whenusedliterally,theyhavetheirnaturalandusualmeaning.Whenusedfiguratively,theyhaveasuggestedmeaning.,!,.,94,Asimileisafigureofspeechwhichmakesacomparisonbetweentwounlikeelements,havingatleastonepointofresemblanceinappearance,quality,actionoreffect.,.,95,Ametaphor,likeasimile,alsomakesacomparisonbetweentwounlikeelements,butunlikeasimile,thiscomparisonisimpliedratherthanstated.,Metaphor?,.,96,Therearethreemajorgroupsofmetaphorsaccordingtofunctionandcharacter:,A.Anthropomorphicmetaphors,B.Animalmetaphors,C.Synaestheticmetaphors,.,97,A.Anthropomorphicmetaphors,Manyinanimateobjectsarecomparedtothepartsofthehumanbody.,.,98,theeyeofaneedle针眼,theeyeofapotato马铃薯的芽眼,theeyeofthehurricane风眼,theeyeofaflower花心,theeyeofapeacockstail孔雀翎斑,theeyeoftherevolution革命中心,.,99,参见p.32forMoreExamples,.,100,B.Animalmetaphors,Agreatmanyinanimateobjects,includingvariousinstruments,machinesandpartsofmachinesarecalledafterananimal.,.,101,Cat-o-nine-tails;九尾鞭；香蒲,Cat-ice:thiniceunsupportedbywater薄冰,Catmintorcatnip猫薄荷,Catlap:slops,tea,etc.稀薄饮料,.,102,Anotherlargegroupofanimalnamescanbetran