管理学复习重点

管理学复习1.Who are managers? A Manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals.管理者是这样的人，他同别人一起工作或通过协调其他人的活动的方式实现组织目标。First-line managers (supervisor)Middle managers (plant/division manager)Top managers (CEO/president)Non-managerial employeeEfficiency Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs.效率是指以最少的投入获得最大的产出。Effectiveness Effectiveness is concerned with completing activities so that organizational goals are attained.效果是指实现组织目标的程度。2.The organizations culture(1)What is culture? Culture is a system of shared language, religious beliefs, idea, attitudes education and social structure held by society or peoples.文化是指一个社会或群体的语言、宗教信仰、观念、态度、教育和社会结构等的总和。What is organizational culture? Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning and beliefs held by organizational members that determines, in large degree, how they act.组织文化是组织成员共有的价值和信念体系，这一体系在很大程度上决定了组织成员的行动方式。Our definition of culture implies several things: First, culture is a perception. Second, we tend to describe the organizations culture in similar terms. Finally, organizational culture is a descriptive term.Dimensions of organizational culture企业文化的范围 innovation and risk taking创新与风险承受力 attention to detail关注细节 outcome orientation成果导向people orientation员工导向team orientation团队导向 aggressiveness进取性 stability稳定性Strong versus weak cultures A strong culture is one in which the key values are intensely held and widely shared.强文化是强烈拥有并广泛共享基本价值观念的文化。3.The environment (1)Defining the external environment External environment refers to forces and institutions outside the organization that potentially can affect the organizations performance. The external environment is made up of two components, the specific environment and the general environment.The specific environment: The components of the specific environment include customers, suppliers, competitors, and pressure groups; 具体环境的构成要素包括顾客、供应商、竞争者和公众压力集团；The general environment: The components of the general environment include broad economic, political/legal, socio-cultural, demographic, technological, and global conditions. 一般环境的构成要素包括广泛的经济、政治法律、社会文化、人口统计、技术和全球条件。Stakeholder relationship management股东关系管理 Managers may have to deal with both internal and external stakeholders. Internal stakeholders include employees and unions. 内部的利益相关者包括员工和工会；External stakeholders include customers, suppliers, local communities, shareholders and investors, competitors, creditors, social and political action groups, trade or industry associations and governments. 外部的利益相关者包括顾客、供应商、地方社区、股东和投资者、竞争者、债权人、社会和政治活动群体、贸易或工业协会，以及政府。4.How organizations go global Organizations typically go global in three stages.Stage I is exporting to or importing from foreign countries. 组织走向全球化往往经历三个阶段：阶段是向国外出口或从国外进口；Stage II involves hiring foreign representatives to sell the organizations products or contracting with foreign manufacturers to make the organizations products. 阶段是雇用外国代理商销售组织的产品或与国外的制造商订立合同来制造组织的产品；Stage III is the most serious commitment to global business and involves licensing franchising, strategic alliances, joint ventures, or foreign subsidiaries. 阶段在全球业务中的投入是最为积极的，涉及许可证贸易、特许经营、战略同盟、合资企业或外国子公司。What is social responsibility?(1)Two opposing views of social responsibility According to the classical view, businesss only social responsibility is to maximize financial returns for stockholders;根据古典观，企业的社会责任仅仅是股东财务回报的最大化；The opposing socioeconomic view holds that business has a responsibility to the larger society.与之对立的社会经济观认为，企业应对更大的社会负责。(2)Arguments for and against social responsibility The arguments for businesss being socially responsible include public expectations, long-run profits, ethical obligation, public image, a better environment, 主张企业承担社会责任的论据有：公众期望、长期利润、道德义务、公众形象、更好的氛围、 fewer governmental regulations, balancing of responsibility and power, stockholder interests, possession of resources, and the superiority of prevention over cures. 较少政府调节、责任与权利的平衡、股东利益、资源占有以及预防社会弊端的优越性。The arguments against hold that social responsibility violates the profit-maximization objective, dilutes the organizations purpose, 而反对此论点的一方认为，承担社会责任违反利润最大化目标，淡化组织的使命，costs too much, gives business too much power, requires skills that business does not have, lacks accountability, and lacks wide public support.成本太大，给与企业太多的权利。要求企业并不具备的技能，缺乏明确规定的责任，以及缺乏公众的广泛支持。(3)From obligations to responsiveness Social obligation is when an organization has met its economic and legal responsibilities and no more. 社会义务是指企业仅仅实现其经济和法律责任。Social responsiveness refers to the capacity of a firm to respond to social pressures and is guided by social norms.社会响应是指一个企业对社会压力做出反应，并用社会准则作为指导的能力。Social responsibility refers to businesss pursuit of long-term goals that are good for society and requires a business to determine what is right or wrong by seeking out fundamental truths. 社会责任是指企业对有利于社会的长远目标的追求，它要求企业探索基本的道德真理，从而决定什么是对，什么是错。1. The decision-making process (1) formulating problems, (2) identifying decision criteria, (3) allocating weights to the criteria, (4) developing alternatives, (5) analyzing alternatives, (6) selecting an alternative, (7) implementing the alternative (8) evaluating decision effectiveness(1) Making decisions: rationality, bounded rationality, and intuition制定决策：理性、有限理性和直觉The rational decision maker is assumed to have a clear problem, have no goal conflict, know all options, have a clear preference ordering, 理性的决策者被假定为清楚地了解问题，不存在目标冲突，知道所有的选择，具有清晰的优先次序，keep all references constant, have no time or cost constraints, and select a final choice that maximizes his or her payoff. 始终保持优先次序不变，没有时间和成本的约束，以及最后的选择可以使其回报最大化。If neither certainty nor reasonable probability estimates are available, uncertainty exists, and the decision makers choice will be influenced by intuition. 如果既不存在确定性也不存在对概率的合理估计，则这样的决策是非确定性的。在这种情况下，决策者的选择将受到直觉的影响。What is planning? Planning involves defining the organizations goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate organizational work. 计划工作包含定义组织的目标，制定全局战略以实现目标，以及开发广泛的计划，集成和协调组织的工作。Types of plans : Strategic plans cover an extensive time period, cover broad issues, and include the formulation of objectives. 战略计划覆盖了扩展的时间区间，覆盖了广泛的问题，包含了目标的设立； Operational plans cover shorter time periods, focus on specifics, and assume that objectives are already known. 运营计划覆盖的是较短的时间区间，它关注具体问题，假设目标已经存在。Long-term plans are those with a time frame beyond three years. Short-term plans are those covering one year or less. 长期计划是那些时间期限超过3年的计划；短期计划是那些时间期限为1年或短于1年的计划。Specific plans are clearly defined and leave no room for interpretation.Directional plans are flexible plans that set out general guidelines. 具体的计划是清楚定义的计划，它没有给解释留下余地；方向性计划是灵活的计划，它设立了一般的指导原则。 A single-use plan is a one-time plan specifically designed to meet the needs of a unique situation. Standing plans are ongoing plans that provide guidance for activities performed repeatedly.一次性使用的计划是一次性计划，专门设计用来满足特定的需求；持续性计划是持续执行的计划，它提供了重复进行的活动的指南。Why do managers plan? Managers plan for four reasons: planning gives direction by establishing coordinated efforts, planning reduces the impact of change, planning minimizes wasted time and resources and redundancy, and planning sets the standards used in controlling.计划指出了方向，并对各种努力进行协调；计划减少了变化的冲击；计划工作最小化了时间的浪费和资源的浪费；以及计划工作为控制工作设立了标准。SWOT analysis refers to analyzing the organizations internal strengths and weaknesses as well as the external opportunities and threats in order to identify a niche that the organization can exploit.SWOT分析是指分析组织内部的优势和劣势以及外部的机会和威胁，以便发现组织能够开发的市场区隔。Business-level strategy The various competitive strategies include cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. 三种基本的竞争战略包括成本领先、差异化以及聚焦战略。A cost leadership strategy is the strategy an organization follows when it wants to be the lowest-cost producer in its industry. 成本领先战略是组织试图成为产业最低成本生产商的战略；The differentiation strategy is the strategy a firm follows when it wants to be unique in its industry dimensions widely valued by customers. 差异化战略是组织试图在顾客重视的基本价值方面与众不同的战略；The focus strategy is the strategy a company follows when it pursues a cost or a differentiation advantage in a narrow industry segment. 聚焦战略是公司寻求在狭窄的产业市场区隔上追求成本优势或差别化优势的战略。Functional-level strategy seeks to determine how to support the business-level strategy. 职能层战略寻求如何支持事业层战略。Organizing is the process of creating an organizations structure. 组织工作是指一个组织结构的创设过程。An organizational structure is the organizations formal framework by which job tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated. 组织结构是组织中正式确定的使工作任务得以划分、组合和协调的框架体系。Organizational design is process that involves decisions about six key elements: work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization and decentralization, and formalization. 组织设计涉及六方面关键要素： 工作专门化、部门化、指挥链、管理跨度、集权与分权、正规化。(1) Work specialization Work specialization describes the degree to which tasks in the organization are divided into separate jobs. 工作专门化描述组织中的任务被划分为各项专门工作的程度。(2)Departmentalization Departmentalization describes the way in which jobs are grouped in order to accomplish organizational goals. 部门化反映将若干职位组合在一起以完成组织目标的方式。(3)Chain of command The chain of command is a continuous line of authority that extends from the upper levels of the organization down to the lowest levels and clarities who reports to whom. 指挥链是指从组织高层延伸到基层的这样一条持续的职权线，它界定了谁向谁报告工作。(4)Span of controls Span of control refers to how many subordinates a manager can effectively and efficiently supervise. 管理跨度指一位管理者能有效监控的直接下属人数。(5)Centralization and Decentralization Centralization describes the degree to which decision making, is concentrated at a single point in the organization. 集权化反映决策集中于组织中某一点的程度。(6)Centralization and Decentralization Decentralization describes when lower level employees provide input and actually make decisions. 分权化指低层人员提供决策投入或者实际做出决策的程度。(7)Formalization Formalization refers to the degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized and the extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures. 正规化指组织中各项工作标准化以及员工行为受规则和程序约束的程度。Mechanistic and organic organization Mechanistic organizations are rigid and tightly controlled structures. 机械式组织是一种刻板的严密控制的结构。They are characterized by high specializations, extensive departmentalization, narrow spans of control, high formalization, a limited information network, and little participation in decision making by lower-level employees. 特征是：高度的专门化、广泛的部门划分、窄管理跨度、高度正规化、有限的信息沟通（大多是下行沟通）、低层员工很少参与决策。Organic organizations are highly adaptive and flexible. 有机式组织是一种灵活的具有高度适应性的结构，There is division of labor, but jobs are not highly standardized. Formalization an tight managerial controls are unnecessary because employees are highly trained. 虽有劳动分工，但人们所做的工作并不是标准化的，且员工的良好训练使正规划和严密的管理控制成为不必要。Contingency factors The four contingency factors that influence an organizations design are strategy, size, technology, and environment. 影响组织设计的四个权变因素是：战略、规模、技术和环境。A simple structure is an organizational design with departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization. 简单型结构是一种低度部门化、宽管理跨度、职权集中于一个人手中，且正规化程度低的组织设计。The progress of interpersonal communication This message is converted to symbolic form (called encoding) and passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver who retranslates the senders message (called decoding), 信息被转化为信号形式 (编码)，并通过媒介(通道)传送至接受者，由接受者将收到的信号再转译过来(解码)。 The entire process is susceptible to noise-disturbances that interfere with the transmission, receipt, or feedback of a message. 这整个过程受到噪声的影响。噪声就是那些对信息的传送、接受或反馈造成干扰的因素。 Human resource management is strategically important because various studies have concluded that an organizations human resources can be a significant source of competitive advantage. 人力资源管理具有战略性意义，因为，根据多项研究的结果表明，组织的人力资源是其竞争优势的重要源泉。Also, other studies have shown that certain HRM policies and practices, called high-performance work practices, can lead to both high individual and high organizational performance. 而且，还有研究显示出，一些人力资源管理政策和实践称之为高绩效工作实务，会带来个人绩效和组织绩效的同时提升。The human resource management process seeks to staff the organization and sustain high employee performance through human resource planning, recruitment or decruitment, selection, 人力资源管理过程旨在通过人力资源规划、招聘或解聘、甄选、orientation, training, performance management, compensation and benefits, and career development. 上岗引导、培训、绩效管理、薪酬与福利和职业发展，努力为组织选配合适的人员并保持员工的高绩效水平。Recruitment seeks to develop a pool of potential job candidates. Typical sources include an internal search, advertisements, employee referrals, 招聘是要形成某工作职位的一大批潜在的候选人。常见的招聘渠道包括内部搜寻、广告应征、员工推荐、public and private employment agencies, Web-based advertising, school placement centers, and temporary help services. 招聘是 公共和私人就业机构、互联网上的广告、学校分配中心和临时性支援服务等。Handling employee stress 处理员工压力 What is stress? Stress is the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure placed on then from extraordinary demands, constrains, or opportunities.所谓压力，是指一个人在面临与其愿望密切相关的机会、限制或要求时的一种动态条件。Causes of stress Stress can be caused by personal factors and by job-related factors. 压力的根源在于与组织有关的因素及员工自己生活中衍生的个人因素。Five conflict management options: 冲突处理方案： Avoidance, accommodation, forcing, compromise, and collaboration 回避、迁就、强制、妥协、合作 Early motivation theories included Maslows hierarchy of needs theory, McGregors Theory X and Theory Y, and Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory. 早期的动机理论包括：马斯洛的需要层次理论，麦格雷戈的X理论与 Y理论，赫茨伯格的激励-保健理论。(1)Maslows hierarchy of needs theory Maslows hierarchy of needs theory states that there are five needs people attempt to satisfy in a step-like progression: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. 马斯洛的需要层次理论认为人类有五个需要层次，它们是逐级得到满足的：生理需要、安全需要、社会需要、尊重需要和自我实现的需要。(2) McGregors Theory X and Theory Y Theory X is basically a negative view of human nature and how people approach work, whereas Theory Y is basically positive. X理论基本上以消极的观点看待人性以及人们从事工作的态度；Y理论则基本上是积极的观点。(3) Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory proposed that not all job factors can motivate employees. 赫茨伯格的激励-保健理论认为不是所有的工作要素都能激励员工。The hygiene factors simply serve to reduce employee dissatisfaction, whereas it is the motivation factors that produce job satisfaction. 保健因素只能安抚员工，减少不满意感。只有激励因素才能使员工产生工作满意感。Three-needs theory These three needs include the need for achievement, the need for power, and the need for affiliation. 三种需要理论认为主要有三种需要推动人们从事工作，他们是成就需要，权力需要和归属需要。Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. 期望理论指出，当人们预期某种行为能带给个体特定的结果，而且这种结果对个体具有吸引力时，个体就倾向于采取这种行为。The key relationships are effort-performance linkage (expectancy), performance-reward linkage (instrumentality), and attractiveness of the reward (valence). 它主要包括以下三种关键联系：努力与工作绩效之间的联系(期望)、工作绩效与奖赏之间的联系(手段)，以及奖赏的吸引力(效价)。Equity theory In equity theory, individuals compare their jobs inputs-outcomes ratio with those of relevant others. If they perceive that they are being under-rewarded, their work motivation declines, Or they may even resign. 公平理论认为，个体总是将自己的付出一所得比与相关他人的付出-所得比进行比较，如果他们感到自己的报酬过低，则会降低工作积极性，甚至会离职；When individuals perceive that they are being over-rewarded, they often are motivated to work harder in order to justify their pay. 如果他们感到自己的报酬过高，则会进一步加强努力以使报酬公平化。From theory to practice: suggestions for motivating employees ensuring that employees perceive goals attainable, individualizing rewards, linking rewards to performance, checking the reward system for equity, and realizing that money is an important incentive. 确保个体相信目标是可以达到的、个别化奖励、奖励与绩效挂钩、检查奖励系统是否公平、重视金钱的激励作用。What is control? Control is the process of monitoring activities to ensure that theyre being accomplished as planned and of correcting any significant deviations. 控制是一种监视工作活动的过程，用来保证工作按计划完成并且纠正出现的任何显著的偏差。The three approaches to control are market control, bureaucratic control, and clan control. 三种实现控制的方法是：市场控制、官僚控制和小集团控制。Market control is an approach that emphasizes external market mechanisms, such as price competition and relative market share, to establish the standards used in the control system. 市场控制是一种强调使用外在市场机制，如价格竞争和相对市场份额，在系统中建立使用标准来达到控制的方法。Bureaucratic control emphasizes organizational authority and relie