戴炜栋语言学复习资料word版

1The scope of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics.1. Some important distinctions in linguistics1) Prescriptive vs. descriptive-If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2) Synchronic vs. diachronic-A language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3) Speech and writing-Speech is more important: a. from linguistic evolution b. needed to record speech, can be spoken but many languages still not writing. c. play a greater role than writing in everyday communication.4). Language and parole-Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.5) Competence and performance-Competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguistics Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar:a. linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.b. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the writtenc. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.2. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3. The feature of language: a. language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. b. Language is arbitrary.c. Language is symbolic.4. Design features:a. Arbitrariness: there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.b. Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.c. Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.d. Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away palces.e. Culture transmissionChapter two Phonology1. Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.2. Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phoneticsthe (study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech) and acoustic phonetics3. Three important areas of organs of speech: Pharyngeal cavity-the throatThe oral cavity-the mouthNasal cavity-the nose4. The difference between broad transcription and narrow transcription:Broad transcription is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.5. Two ways of classification of English consonants: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.6. Types of English consonants: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides, bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal.7. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8. IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet):9. A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. 10. Phoneme 音位: an abstract phonological unit of distinctive value that is represented or realized by a certain phone11. 3. Allophones 音位变体: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments 12. Minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical（完全相同）in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.(till,kill)13. Sequential rules: there are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.14. Assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.15. Deletion rule: a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.16. Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.17. Two kinds of stress： word stress and sentence stressSentence stress: the relative force given to the components of a sentence18. Tone: pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.19. Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.a. falling-tone rising tone fall-rise toneChapter 3 Morphology1. Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme cannot be divided without althering or destroying its meaning abstract (theoretical) unitsAllomorph: any of the different forms of a morpheme.Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relation between words and function as grammatical markers. Derivational morphemes make explicit the word class assignment of the word. Chapter 4 Syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Category: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. Word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.4. Called phrases: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.5. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements:a. head: the word around which a phrase is formedb. specifier: the words on the left side of the heads are said to function.c. Complements: the words on the right side of the heads.6. Phrase structure rule: such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up phrase.7. The XP rule: XP(specifier)-X(complement)8. Coordination structure: some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. 9. The principle of coordination rule:a. there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.b. A category at any level can be coordinated.c. Coordinated categories must be of the same type.d. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.10. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.11. Determiners serve as the specifier of Ns while qualifiers typically function as the specifiers of Vs and degree words as the specifiers of As and sometimes Ps.12. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.13. Complementizers: words which introduce the sentence complement.14. The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. 15. Thus the whole italicized part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase