词汇学第四章

EnglishLexicology,Chapter4WordFormation,Meansofwordformation,Affixation(30%-40%)Compounding(28%-30%)Conversion(26%),Themostproductivemethods,Shortening(8%-10%),Clipping截短法,Acronymy首字母拼音法,Back-formation逆生法,Soundreduplication语音重叠法,Blending拼缀法,Commonizationofpropernames专有名词转化法,4.1Affixation词缀法,Affixationisgenerallydefinedastheformationofwordsbyaddingword-formingorderivationalaffixestobases.Thisprocessisalsoknownasderivation.Thewordscreatedinthiswayarecalledderivatives.Accordingtothepositionsaffixesoccupyinwords,affixationfallsintotwosubcategories:prefixationandsuffixation.,Prefixation前缀法,Prefixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestobases.前缀法是在词基上加前缀构成新词的方法。Prefixesdonotgenerallychangetheword-classofthebasebutonlymodifyitsmeaning.Themajorprefixescanbeclassifiedinto10categoriesbytheirmeaning.,Classificationofprefixes,Negativeprefixes(否定前缀)Reversativeorprivativeprefixes(逆反前缀)Pejorativeprefixes(贬义前缀)Prefixesofdegreeorsize(表程度和大小的前缀)Prefixesoforientationandattitude(表方向态度的前缀)Locativeprefixes(方位前缀)Prefixesoftimeandorder(表时间和顺序的前缀)Numberprefixes(数字前缀)Conversionprefixes(转化前缀)Miscellaneousprefixes(其他类型的前缀),1)Negativeprefixes否定前缀,un,1)Negativeprefixes,dis,1)Negativeprefixes,non,1)Negativeprefixes否定前缀,2)Reversative/privativeprefixes逆反前缀,2)Reversativeprefixes,un,unpack:打开包裹unwrap:打开，解开undo:取消，撤销undress:(使)脱衣服,2)Reversativeprefixes,de,decentralize:使分散demobilize:遣散deforest:采伐森林decode:解码,2)Reversativeprefixes,dis,disconnect:断开disunion:分裂discolor:褪色dishearten:使灰心；使沮丧,3)Pejorativeprefixes贬义前缀,3)Pejorativeprefixes,mis,mishear:听错misconduct:不端行为mislead:误导,3)Pejorativeprefixes,mal,malfunction:发生故障；不起作用malformed:畸形的，难看的malodorous:有恶臭的,3)Pejorativeprefixes,pseudo,pseudo-science:伪科学pseudo-democratic:伪民主pseudo-friend:假朋友,4)Prefixesofdegreeorsize表程度和大小的前缀,arch,arch-enemy:大敌；主要敌人arch-rival：主要竞争对手arch-bishop:大主教；总教主,4)Prefixesofdegreeorsize,super,superman:超人supernatural:超自然的supermarket:超市superhero:超级英雄,4)Prefixesofdegreeorsize,out,outnumber:数目超过；比多outlive:比长寿；活得长outweigh:比重；比重要outsmart:比更聪明,5)Prefixesoforientationandattitude表方向和态度的前缀,5)Prefixesoforientationandattitude表方向和态度的前缀,pro,pro-democracy:支持民主pro-authority:支持权威pro-feminist:拥女主义,5)Prefixesoforientationandattitude,counter,counter-strike:反击counter-accusation:反指控counter-example:反例counter-revolution:反革命,5)Prefixesoforientationandattitude,anti,anti-social:反社会的anti-national:反国家的anti-aging:抗衰老anti-slavery:反对奴隶制；废奴主义,6)locativeprefixes方位前缀,6)Locativeprefixes,fore,foreleg:前腿forehead:前额forearm:前臂,6)locativeprefixes,inter,intermarry:通婚；联姻interpersonal:人际的interstate:州际的,6)locativeprefixes,trans,transatlantic:横渡大西洋的；跨大西洋的transcontinental:横穿大陆的transplant:移植transsexual:改变性别的,7)Prefixesoftimeandorder表时间和顺序的前缀,7)Prefixesoftimeandorder,fore,foretell:预言；预告foreword:前言；序forefather:祖先foreknowledge:预知；先见之明,7)Prefixesoftimeandorder,pre,preschool:幼儿园prewar:战前的pre-retirement:退休前pre-prepared:预先准备的,7)Prefixesoftimeandorder,post,postwar:战后的postgraduate:研究生post-election:大选后,8)Numberprefixes数字前缀,8)Numberprefixes,semi,hemi,8)Numberprefixes,uni,mono,8)Numberprefixes,bi,9)Conversionprefixes转化前缀,havinglittlesemanticvaluechieffunction:toeffectaconversionofthebasefromonewordclasstoanother(thesamewithsuffixesinthisrespect)Englishhasonlythreetraditionalconversionprefixes:a-,be-,en-(em-),9)Conversionprefixes,a,a-:addedtoverbstoproducepredicativeadjectives,9)Conversionprefixes,be,be-:withnounstoformtransitiveverbswithnounsplusedtoyieldadjectives,9)Conversionprefixes,en,chieflywithnounsoradjectivestocreatetransitiveverbsem-occurringtowordsbeginningwith/p,b,m/,10)Miscellaneousprefixes其他类型的前缀,auto-:selfautobiography,autosuggestionneo-:new,revivedneo-liberal,neo-Nazi,neo-expressionismpan-:all,thewholeofpan-continental,pan-European,pan-Indianproto-:first,originalproto-horse,proto-fascist,proto-coalitionvice-:deputyvice-provost,vice-chairwoman,vice-governor,Suffixation后缀法,Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestobases.后缀法是在词基上加上后缀进行构词的方法。Unlikeprefixeswhichprimarilychangethemeaningofthebase,suffixeshaveonlyasmallsemanticrole,theirprimaryfunctionbeingtochangethegrammaticalfunctionofbase.Inotherwords,theymainlychangethewordclass.Prefixesareclassifiedonasemanticbasisandsuffixesonagrammaticalbasis.weshallgroupsuffixesonagrammaticalbasisinto:1)nounsuffixes2)adjectivesuffixes3)adverbsuffixes4)verbsuffixes,45,Suffixation,1)NounsuffixesNounsuffixesmaybesubdividedintothefollowingfourkinds:Denominalnouns(concreteorabstract)名词派生的名词Deverbalnouns动词派生的名词De-adjectivenouns形容词派生的名词Nounandadjectivesuffixes名词和形容词后缀,46,Suffixation,1)Nounsuffixes,47,48,Suffixation,1)Nounsuffixes,49,Suffixation,1)Nounsuffixes,50,Suffixation,1)NounsuffixesAsmallnumberofsuffixes,whenaddedtobasesrelatedtohumanbeingsornationalitynames,yieldwordsthatcanbeusedbothasnounsandadjectives.,51,Suffixation,2)AdjectiveSuffixes,52,Suffixation,2)AdjectiveSuffixes,53,Suffixation,2)AdjectiveSuffixes,54,Suffixation,3)AdverbSuffixes,55,Suffixation,4)Verbsuffixes,4.2Compounding,Compounding,alsocalledcomposition,istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorebases.复合法是指将两个或两个以上的词基结合起来构成新词的方法。Wordsformedincompoundingarecalledcompounds.用这种方法构成的词叫做复合词。e.g.silkwormsolid(连写形式)honey-beehyphenated(连字符连接形式)teargas,easychairopen(分写形式),Characteristicsofcompounds,Compoundshavenoticeablecharacteristicswhichmaydifferentiatethemselvesfromnounphrasesinthefollowingfouraspects.1)PhonologicalFeatures语音特征Incompoundsthewordstressusuallyoccursonthefirstelementwhereasinnounphrasesthesecondelementisgenerallystressedifthereisonlyonestress.Incasesoftwostresses,thecompoundhastheprimarystressonthefirstelementandthesecondarystressonthesecondwhereastheoppositeistrueoffreephrases.ExamplesonP.67,Characteristicsofcompounds,CompoundsFreephraseadarkhorseadarkhorseButthesestresspatternsofcompoundsarenotabsolute.Sometimes,primarystressmayalsofallonthesecondelementasinash-blonde(亚麻色的)bottle-green(深绿色的)socio-linguistics(社会语言学)psycho-analysis(心理分析),Characteristicsofcompounds,2)SemanticFeatures语义特征Compoundsaredifferentfromfreephrasesinsemanticunity.Usually,everycompoundexpressesasingleideajustasoneword.Forinstance,agreenhandisaninexperiencedperson,notahandthatisgreenincolorhotdogisbynomeansadogthatishot,butatypicalAmericansausageinbetweentwopiecesofbread.Themeaningsofsuchwordscannotbeeasilyinferredfromthetwocomponentsofthecompounds.,Characteristicsofcompounds,3)GrammaticalFeatures语法特征Acompoundtendstoplayasinglegrammaticalroleinasentence,e.g.,averb,anoun,oranadjective.复合词在句子中是一个独立的语法单位。bad-mouthusedasaverbcantakethethirdpersonsingular-sandthepasttensemarkerede.g.Hebad-mouthedme.(他说了我的坏话)Compoundnounsshowtheirpluralformsbytakinginflectional-sattheend,forexample:new-borns,three-year-olds,will-o-the-wisps(鬼火)Ofcourse,thereareexceptionssuchasbrothers-in-law,lookers-on.Inspiteofthissinglegrammaticalroleisapparent.,Characteristicsofcompounds,4)OrthographicalFeatures拼写特征Inmostcases,compoundsarewritteneither“solid”or“hyphenated”.在大多数情况下，复合词采取连写形式或连字符连接形式。Somecompoundscanbewritteninthreeforms,forexample:flowerpot,flower-pot,flowerpotBritishEnglishlikestousehyphenatecompoundsAmericanEnglishlikestousefreephrases.,FormationofCompounds,Compoundscantakeplacewithinanyofthewordclass.Themostproductiveonesarenouns,adjectivesandverbs.Mostcompoundsconsistofonlytwobasesbutareformed0narichvarietyofpatternsandtheinternalgrammaticalrelationshipswithinthewordsarecomplex.threemajorclassesofcompounds:1)NounCompounds(P69-71)2)AdjectiveCompounds(P71-73)3)VerbCompounds(P73)Therearemanycompoundswhichcontainmorethantwostems,andthesearefreephrasesoridiomsbutarejoinedtogetherbyhyphenatingthewords.,4.3Conversion转类法,Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass,i.e.byturningonepartofspeechtoanotherpartofspeech.Newwordsarenewonlyinagrammaticalsense,theydonotchangeinmorphologicalstructurebutinfunction,sothisprocessisalsoknownasfunctionalshift功能转换.Conversionisgenerallyconsideredtobeaderivationalprocessinwhichanitemisconvertedtoanewwordclasswithouttheadditionofanaffix.Soitisalsocalledzero-derivation零位派生.,TypesofConversion,Wordsproducedbyconversionareprimarilynouns,adjectivesandverbs,amongwhichtheconversionbetweennounsandverbsarethemostproductive.ConversiontoNounsConversiontoVerbsConversiontoAdjectives1.ConversiontoNouns1)Deverbal2)De-adjectival3)MiscellaneousConversion,ConversiontoNouns,1)Deverbal(动词转化成名词)Almostallmonomorphemic(单语素结构的)verbscanbeusedasnouns,whicharesemanticallyrelatedtotheoriginalverbsinvariousways.State(ofmindorsensation)(doubt;want;desire)Eventoractivity(search;laugh;attempt)Resultoftheaction(catch;find,answer)Doeroftheaction(help;cheat,scold)Toolorinstrumenttodotheactionwith(cover;wrap)Placeoftheaction(pass;walk;divide),ConversiontoNouns,2)De-adjectival(形容词转化为名词)Fullconversion(完全转化)Anounfullyconvertedfromanadjectivehasallthecharacteristicsofnouns.Itcantakeanindefinitearticleor(e)stoindicatesingularorpluralnumber.Theycanbe:Commonadjectives:awhite,anative,finals,valuablesParticiplesandothers:adrunk,newly-weds,new-borns,ConversiontoNouns,Partialconversion(部分转化)Nounspartiallyconvertedfromadjectivesdonotpossessallthequalitiesanoundoes.Theymustbeusedtogetherwithdefinitearticlesasnounswhileretainingsomeoftheadjectivefeatures.Thegradableadjectivescankeeptheircomparativeorsuperlativedegrees.e.g.thepoorer,themoreaffluent,themostcorruptWordsinthiscategorygenerallydenoteagroupofthekind;suchnounscanrefertoasinglepersonaswell.,ConversiontoNouns,3)MiscellaneousConversion(其他类型的转化)Nounsconvertedfromotherclassesasconjunctions,modals,prepositions,etc.e.g.Lifeisfullofupsanddowns.Hisargumentcontainstoomanyifsandbuts.Rubberglovesareamustifyourskinissensitivetowashingpowders.,ConversiontoVerbs,Anouncanbeconvertedtoaverbwithoutanychange.Theuseoftheverbconvertedisbotheconomicalandvivid.Forexample:“toelbowoneswaythroughthecrowd”ismoreimpressiveandconcisethan“topushoneswaythroughthecrowdwithoneselbow”Problemssnowballedbythehour.Thenewspaperheadlinedhisgreataccomplishments.KissingergottheplansandhelicopteredtoCampDavid.,ConversiontoVerbs,Threekindsofconversiontoverbs1)Denominal(n-v)topocketthemoney=t0putmoneyintothepockettomailtheletter=tosendtheletterbymail2)De-adjectival(adj-v)Hewalkedcarefullysoasnottowethisshoes.(vt)Thephotographyellowedwithage.(vi)3)MiscellaneousconversionWedownedafewbeers.(prep-v)Thestudentstut-tuttheidea.(exclamation-v),Conversiontoadjectives,Itoccursmostlybetweennounsandadjectives.Generally,massandmaterialnouns(物质名词)canbeusedasadjectives.e.g.anirongateagoldringabrickhouseawhilesilkscarf,Lessproductivewordformation,1.Blending(拼缀法)2.Clipping(截短法)3.Acronymy(首字母拼音法)4.Back-formation(逆生法)5.Soundreduplication(语音重叠法)6.Commonizationofpropernames(专有名词转化法),4.4Blending拼缀法,Blendingistheformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.拼缀法是将两个词的某一部分合并，或者将一个词加上另外一个词的一个部分而构成新词的方法。Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledblends(拼缀词)orpormanteauwords(混成词).ClassificationFeaturesofblends,Blending,Task:Pointouthowthefollowingwordsaremade.smogsmoke+fog(烟雾)bookmobilebook+automobile(流动汽车图书馆)sci-fiscience+fiction(科幻小说)skylabsky+laboratory(太空实验室),Classificationofblending,Structurally,wordscreatedthroughblendingfallintofourmajorcategories:1)head+tailthefirstpartofword1+thelastpartofword2breakfast+lunchbrunch(早午餐)motor+hotelmotel(汽车旅馆)channel+tunnelchunnel(海峡隧道),Classificationofblending,2)head+headthefirstpartofword1+thefirstpartofword2situation+comedysitcom(情景喜剧)communications+satellitecomsat(通讯卫星)psychological+warfarepsywar(心理战),Classificationofblending,3)head+wordthefirstpartofword1+thewholeformofword2medical+caremedicare(医疗保险)automobile+campautocamp(汽车宿营地)motor+townmotown(汽车城),Classificationofblending,4)word+tailthewholeformofword1+thelastpartofword2work+welfareworkfare(劳动福利)lunar+astronautlunarnaut(登月宇航员)slim+gymnasticsslimnastics(瘦身操),FeaturesofBlends,Theoverwhelmingmajorityofblendsarenouns;veryfewareverbsandadjectivesareevenfewer.Therelationofthecomponentsofablendcanbeclassifiedintotwokinds:thetwopartsmayenjoyequalstatusandcanbeconnectedby“and”asin“brunch”oronecomponentisthemodificatoroftheotherasin“psywar”.particularlycommonincommercialandjournalisticlanguage(newspapersandmagazines)andinwritingrelatedtoscienceandtechnology.,4.5Clipping截短法,Clippingistheformationofnewwordsbycuttingapartofftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.截短法是截取原词的某一部分而将剩余部分作为新词来使用的构词法。Reason:peopletendtobeeconomicalinwritingandspeechtokeepupwiththetempoofnewlifestyle.Typesofclipping1)frontclipping(截除首部)2)backclipping(截除尾部)3)frontandbackclipping(截除首尾)4)phraseclipping(词组截短),Frontclipping截除首部,Thedeletionoccursatthebeginningoftheword.quake(earthquake)copter(helicopter)bus(omnibus)phone(telephone),Backclipping截除尾部,Thedeletionoccursattheendoftheword.ad(advertisement)prof(professor)dorm(dormitory)lab(laboratory),Frontandbackclipping截除首尾,Thedeletionoccursbothatthebeginningandattheendoftheword.flu(influenza)tec(detective)fridge(refrigerator)jams(pajamas),Phraseclipping词组截短,Thisinvolvestheshorteningofaphrase.pop(popularmusic)pub(publichouse)zoo(zoologicalgarden)Gents(GentlemensRoom)(男洗手间),Featuresofclippings,Clippingmaygiverisetoalterationsinspellingandpronunciation.bike(bicycle)mike(microphone)coke(Cocacola)Thischangeinformandsoundispossiblyduetotheinformalitytypicalofclippedforms.Forconvenienceandcasualnessinspeech,peopleoftenomitoneortwosyllablesfromaword;andthenwhenitiswrittendown,anewspellingformiscoinedtosuittheoralform.(because-cos,perhaps-praps),4.6Acronymy首字母拼音法,Acronymyistheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialnoun.首字母拼音法是将一些社会组织或者政治组织名称的第一个字母组合在一起构成新词的方法。Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledacronyms.Acronyms(首字母拼音词)canbedividedintoinitialismsandacronymsdependingonthepronunciationofthewords.initialisms首字母缩略词acronyms首字母拼音词,Initialisms首字母缩略词,Initialismsarewordsformedbyacronymyandpronouncedletterbyletter.Twokindsofinitialisms：1)Lettersrepresentfullwords字母代表整词VOAVoiceofAmerica2)Lettersrepresentconstituentsinacompoundorjustpartsofaword.字母代表一个复合词的构成成分或词的一部分TVtelevisionIDIdentificationoridentitycard,Acronyms首字母拼音词,Anacronymisawordformedfromtheinitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalword.首字母拼音词由首字母构成,但作为一个普通词来发音。Structurally,therearethreekindsofacronyms:1)pureacronyms纯粹的首字母拼音词formedfrominitiallettersonlyNATOtheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization2)hybridacronyms混种的首字母拼音词formedwithmorethaninitiallettersradarradiodetectingandranging3)syllabicaconyms首字母音节拼音词DelmarvaDelaware,Maryland,Virgina,4.7back-formation逆生法,Back-formationisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestobases,andback-formationisthereforethemethodofcreatingwordsbyremovingthesup