英语词汇学自考重点.doc

各章重点内容串讲：Introduction1.Lexicology（名词解释题）（1）Definition: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words（WNWD）.本句翻译：词汇学是语言学的一个分支，它主要是研究词汇的来源以及意义（词汇学的定义）。（2）Domain: English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.本句翻译：它研究的是英语词汇的形态结构，同时它还研究英语词汇的语义结构、英语词汇的发展历史和英语词汇的形成与用法。2.Methods of Study（单选题/名词解释题）（1）Two approachesThere are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.synchronic 共时法diachronic 历时法（2）Definition: A, synchronicFrom a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time.However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning.1.word（名词解释）（1）a minimal free form of a language 1）Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free form of a language（词是语言中的最小的自由形式）2）that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.（词有固定的读音，固定的意义，固定的句法功能。）2.the relationships between the sound and meaning（1）简答题1）Sound is the physical aspect of a word. And meaning is what the sound refers to.本句翻译：音是词的物质外壳；义是音的所指。2）A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world, which is outside the language system.（2）单选题或填空题arbitrary/conventional1）there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself.（音与实际的实物和实际思想本身并没有一定的逻辑关系）2）The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds.3.More and more differences occur between the two.（简答题）（音和形之间的距离越拉越大）（P8）The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the RomansAnother reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the yearsThe third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.4.Words can be classified by different criteria（简答题/单选题）（P10P11）Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.use frequency使用频率notion概念origin词源5.The basic word stock（名词解释）（P11）（1）The basic word stock is the foundation（基础） of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.（2）Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics.6.Features of the basic word stock （简答题）All national character.（全民性）Stability.（稳定性）Productivity.（能产性）Polysemy.（多义性）Collocability.（搭配性）7.Nonbasic words（1）Terminology（术语）（2）Jargon（行话）（3）Slang（俚语）（4）Argot（黑话）（5）Dialectal words（方言词）（6）Archaisms（古词）（7）Neologisms（新词）Slang（俚语）（P14）:1）Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant（shoptalk of any sub-group）, jargon, and argot.俚语属于非基本语言，它是位于标准语和套话、行话以及黑话之间的语言。2）Certain words are labeled slang not because of their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage.本句翻译：某些词语之所以叫俚语并不是因为它的发音，也不是因为它的词形，而是因为它的用法。3）Much of the slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether.4）Slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive.俚语是多彩的、直接的、富于表达的并令人印象深刻。Neologisms（新词）（P15）:Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.新词是新创造出的单词或表达方式，或呈现出新意思的词。8.Content Words and Functional Words（单选题）（1）By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words.（2）Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary.实词构成英语词汇的主体。main body 主体（3）functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabulary, remain stable.remain stable 保持稳定（4）functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words.9.Native WordsNative words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words.所谓的本族语词汇是公元五世纪由日曼部落，即盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人带到不列颠的词汇，所以也被称为盎格鲁撒克逊词汇。Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language.盎格鲁撒克逊语当时词汇量很少，大约只有5、6万，但是它们构成了基本词汇的主流，在语言中处于核心地位。Therefore, what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.1.Neutral in style（文体是中性的）.Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropriate in formal style.2.Frequent in use（使用上的频繁性）.Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing.Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.10.four classes of borrowings（简答题）（P19）According to the degree of assimilation（同化） and manner of borrowing（借词的方式）, we can bring the loan-words under four classes.（1）Denizens.（同化词）1）borrowed early in the past. 2）well assimilated.3）conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.Words of this group are early borrowings from Latin（拉丁语）, Greek（希腊语）, French（法语） and Scandinavians（斯堪的纳维亚语）.（2）Aliens.（外国话词）1）Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.外国话词保留了原有的拼写以及发音。2）These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.（3）Translation-loans.（译借词）1）Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language.2）but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.3）Such words can also be subdivided.Words translated according to the meaning（根据意思翻译的词语）Words translated according to the sound（4）Semantic-loans.（借义词）1）Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed.这类外来词不是借到了形而是借它的义。2）English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language.英语赋予现存的某个词汇新的意思。1.The Indo-European Language Family（名词解释）1）It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000（some put it 5,000）languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families.人们认为世界上的语言可能有3000多种，我们将其归成300个语系。2）on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.我们根据它的基本词汇以及语法相似性进行归类。3）The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.印欧语系由欧洲的大多数语言、近东语言、印度语言组成。4）The Indo-European parent language is thought to be a highly inflected language.（印欧语系的特点）印欧语言被认为是高度曲折变化的语言。They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.5）The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages.日曼语族主要包含北欧的四大语言：挪威语、冰岛语、丹麦语和瑞典语，我们将这四种语言统称为斯堪的纳维亚语言。Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.除了北欧语言之外，还有德语、荷兰语、佛兰德语以及英语。2.Old English（450-1150）1）Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English.（单项选择题）Even as this happened, changes were taking place. Latin-speaking Roman missionaries under St. Augustine came to spread Christianity in Britain at the end of the 6th century.The introduction of Christianity had a great impact on the English vocabulary. It brought many new ideas and customs and also many religious terms such as abbot（修道院院长）, candle（蜡烛）, altar（祭坛）, amen（阿门）, apostle（使徒）.基督教的引进对英语词汇有很大的影响。它不但带来大量新思想、新习俗而且还有很多宗教词语。2）In the 9th century the land was invaded again by Norwegian and Danish Vikings. They came first to plunder, then to conquer.3）Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words.古英语的词汇总量大约有5000060000。4）was a highly inflected language just like modern German（古英语的特点）.3.Middle English（1150-1500）1）Until then, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.However, by the end of the 13th century, English gradually came back into the schools, the law courts, and government and regained social status.It made the final step back to a position of importance when it emerged once again as a respected literary medium with the Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of Chaucer, Langland and others.Between 1250 and 1500 about 9,000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.Middle English was one of leveled endings.4.Modern English（1500-up to now）Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. Considering the changes in vocabulary, it is necessary to subdivide it into Early（1500-1700） and Late（1700-up to the present） Modern English.现代英语以印刷术的引进为开端。考虑到词汇的变化，现代英语又可分为：早期现代英语和晚期现代英语。Many of these were taken from Latin and Greek by scholars who wanted to replace the forms earlier adopted from French.In fact, more than twenty-five per cent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages（WBD）.实际上，多于25%的词直接来源于古典的语言。In the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power.17世纪中期英国经历了工业革命，资产阶级革命，成为世界强国。Although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expansion, yet more words are created by means of word-formation（see Chapter 4）.尽管借词仍然是一种重要的渠道，但是英语词汇的扩充主要是通过构词法来形成的。It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language（Old English） to the present analytic language（分析型的语言）.5.Three main sources of new words.3 main sources of new words:（1）the rapid development of modern science and technology.（2）social, economic and political changes; （3）the influence of other cultures and languages.6.Three channels of modern English vocabulary.1）creation, semantic change, borrowing.2）Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.In earlier stages of English, French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributors.Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary.1.Morphemes（名词解释）the definition：1）These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. 2）In other words, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.3）Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. 2.Allomorphs（名词解释）They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.Most morphemes are realized by single morphs.3.Realization of abstract morphemesSome morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.4.Types of MorphemesThere are different ways of classifying morphemes. The popular method is to group them into free morphemes and bound morphemes.词素分为两大类：自由词素以及粘附词素。Free MorphemesMorphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with root words.Bound MorphemesMorphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words. These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.粘附词素主要由粘附词根bound root和词缀affix组成。Bound rootA bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root.It is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek.AffixesAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost all affixes are bound morphemes because few can be used as independent words. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.5.Root and StemRoot1）A root is the basic form of a word 2）which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 3）The root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.StemA stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.1.The expansion of vocabulary in modern English（简答题）：P451）The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.There is a variety of means being at work now.The most productive are affixation，compounding and conversion.2）The rest of the new words come from shortening including clipping and acronymy.together with 1% to 5% of words born out of blending and other means.3）There is a special model：words from proper names.2.Affixation（词缀法）（P46）1）Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2）According to the positions which affixes occupy in words，affixation falls into two subclasses：prefixation and suffixation.PrefixationPrefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature.Negative prefixes（否定前缀）Of this group，un- is by far the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis- with adjectives for actual use as in unreplaceable，unmovable for irreplaceable and immovable.Reversative prefixes（逆向前缀）Pejorative prefixes（贬义前缀）Prefixes of degree or size（程度大小前缀）Prefixes of orientation and attitude（表示倾向、态度的前缀）Locative Prefixes（表示方位的前缀）Prefixes of time and order（表示时间、顺序的前缀）Number prefixes（表示数字的前缀）Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂的前缀）Suffixation（后缀法）Therefore，we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes，verb suffixes，adjective suffixes，etc.3.Compounding （合成词）Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.Words formed in this way are called compounds.Classification of compounds：Solid（合在一起写的）、hyphenated（用连字符连接的）、Open（分开写的）。Characteristics of Compounds（简答题）What are the differences between compounds and free phrases?1.Phonetic featuresIn compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2.Semantic features3.Grammatical featuresFormation of CompoundsThe productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent.Verb compounds:Verb compounds are not as common as the other two classes. The limited number of verbs are created either through conversion or backformation.Back-formed verb compounds are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes: -er, -ing, -ion, etc.4.Conversion（转换法）Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.These words are new only in a grammatical sense. This process is also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation.Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.Conversion to nounVerb to noun. Almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns.Words like hand-out, stand-by, lay-by, teach-in, shut-down are all converted from phrasal verbs.Adjective to noun.It is not unusual to have nouns converted from adjectives. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.Words partially converted. Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. Whats more, they retain some of the adjective features.Conversion to verbs（分析评述题）As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.从三个方面分析60页的11a和11b：