英美法律制度 bench and bar.ppt

CHAPTERIV,TheLegalProfession,4.1Thebar,Legalprofessionmainlycomprisesofattorneys,judges,procuratorsandscholarsoflaw.Lawyersfunctions:adviceandadvocacy.,Twofunctionsofthelawyer,Counselling:aninformal,oftenpersonal,function.Thelawyerdraftsawill,assistsinbuyingahouse,startingasmallbusiness,orformingalargecorporation.Advocacy:aformalfunctionbywhichthelawyerrepresentsandspeaksfortheclientusuallybeforeacourtoradministrativebody.,TheEnglishtradition:,KeepingthedivisionofadvocacyandcounselinghasalwaysbeenatraditioninEngland.Barristers:BarristershavethesolerighttoappearinthehighercourtsCrowncourts,HighCourt,CourtofAppeal,andHouseofLords.Barristersdonotdealdirectlywithlayclients,butonlywithsolicitors.Solicitors:Solicitorsperformthecounsellingfunctionandmayappearinlessercourts.,ModemEnglishbarristersaredividedintotwotypes:,Seniors:TheseniorsarecalledQueensCounsel(QC)or,ifamaleisonthethrone,KingsCounsel(KC).Theyalso,becauseoftheirgownmaterial,arecalled“silks.”Theyconstituteabouttenpercentofthebar.JudgesofthehighercourtsareselectedonlyfromQCs.Juniors:JuniorsassistQCsinpreliminarywork,receiveroughlytwo-thirdsofthefee.However,thejuniorsportionsgenerallyexceedwhattheywouldearniftheytookthecaseontheirownbecauseQCschargesignificantlyhigherfeesthanjuniors.,Solicitors,Solicitorsperformthecounsellingfunctionandmayappearinlessercourts.Whenasolicitorscasemustbeheardinahighercourtthesolicitorengagesabarrister.Becausethebulkoflegalworkiscounselling,therearemanymoresolicitorsthanbarristers.Nowthereareabout60,000solicitorsand10,000barristers.,FeesintheU.K.,TheEnglishbarristersfeeispaidbythesolicitor.Barristersarenotpermittedtosuesolicitorsfortheirfees,anduncollectedfeesareaproblem.Feesaresetbythebarristersclerks.Feesarenotcompetitiveand,indeed,theclerkscommonlyseekthegoingrate.InEngland,inallcasesthewinnerisentitledtoreasonableattorneysfeesfromtheloser.Thesameistrue,withsomevariations,inwesternEurope.InEnglandacourtofficialsetsthereasonablefeetobepaidbytheloser.Onerationaleisthatthewinningpartyshouldnothavetopayforenforcinglegalrights.,FeesintheU.S,Ingeneral,intheUnitedStatestheclientpaysafeetothelawyerwhetherthesuitissuccessfulornot.IntheUnitedStatescontingentfeesarepermittedinmanytypesofcivilcases.Thelawyerspaymentiscontingentontheclientwinning.Thesefeesarereferredtointelevisionadvertisements:Wedontgetpaidunlessyourecover.Widelyusedinaccidentcases,acontingentfeeisapercentageoftherecoverythatgoestothelawyerforthesuccessfulplaintiff,generallyone-thirdbutuptohalftherecovery.Iftheplaintifflosesthelawyergetsnothing.ContingentfeesareforbiddeninEnglandandwesternEurope.Greecepermitscontingentfees,butwithatoplimitofpercent.,4.2ORIGINSOFTHEBAR,Theoriginsofthebararefoundinnecessity.Untilthebodyoflegalknowledge,includingprocedure,hadbecometoomuchfortheordinarypersontohandletherewasnoneedforalegalprofession.ButbythetimeofHenryII(1154-1189)itwaspossibleforalitiganttoappointsomeonetodothetechnicalpleading.Thisperson,theresponsaliswasnotamemberofaseparateprofession,forapparentlyanyonecouldactinthatcapacity.Iteventuallydevelopedinto,orwassupersededbytheattorneywhowasappointedincourtandhadthepowertobindhisemployertoaplea.Bythethirteenthcentury,attorneysconstitutedarecoganizedprofession.,Justastechnicalpleadingrequiredtheaidofattorney,sooralargumentcametorequirespecialskill.Theprivilegeofappearinginpersonbeforethekingsjusticesbecameahollowanddangerousoneasthelawbecamemoretechnical.BythetimeofHenryIII(1216-1272)judgeshadbecomeprofessionals,andthecourtshadstartedtocreateabodyofsubstantivelegalknowledgeaswellastechnicalprocedure.Thenarrators,orpleaderscameintobeingtospeakforlitigantsincourtandtoperformthefunctionofadvocacy.,Thekinghadneedofpersonstorepresentinterestsinthecourts.Intheearlyfourteenthcentury,heappointedsergeantsoftheking(servientesregis)totakecareofhislegalbusiness.Whennotengagedinthekingsbusiness,thesesergeants-at-lawweretheonlypersonswhocouldappearasalawyerintheCommonPleascourt.,Perhapsthecrucialeventinthebeginningofthelegalprofessionwasanedictissuedin1292byEdwardI.Legalbusinesshadincreasedtremendously;yettherewerenoschoolsofthecommonlaw,andtheuniversitiesconsideredlawtoovulgarasubjectforscholarlyinvestigation.EdwardsorderdirectedCommonPleastochoosecertain“attorneysandlearners”whoalonewouldbeallowedtofollowthecourtandtotakepartincourtbusiness,andmadethelegalprofessionamonopoly.,Theeffectofputtingtheeducationoflawyersintothehandsofthecourt:ItresultedintherelativeisolationofEnglishlawyersfromContinental,Roman,andecclesiasticalinfluence.Lawyertaughtlawyer,andeachlearnedfromtheprocessesofthecourts,sothatthelawgrewbydrawingonitsownresourcesandnotbyborrowingfromothers.Itbecameinsular.Whetherthiswasgoodorbadforthedevelopmentofthelawisadebatablequestion,butitdidcreateauniquesystemwithaminimumofforeignideas.,Obviouslythecourtitselfwasnoplaceforthetrainingoftheseattorneysandlearners.Thecourtdidofferaidinprovidinganobservationcalledthecrib,inwhichstudentscouldsittakenotesandfromwhich,occasionally,mightaskquestionsduringthecourseofthetrial.,Thecustomoflawyerslivingtogetherduringtermsofcourt,datingbackasfarasMagnaCarter(1215),gaverisetotheuniqueEnglishinstitutionoftheInnsofCourt.Thefirst,theHonorableSocietyofLincolnsInn,wasgivenahomeinthereignofEdwardI(1272-1307).Itspreservedrecordsdatefrom1422.Sometimelater,InnerTemple,MiddleTemple,andGraysInnwereestablished.TheInnsweresubjecttosupervisionbythejudgesandwereassociatedwiththeInnsofChancery.,TheInnsofCourt,BecausetheInnsalsotaughtthingssuchasmusicanddancing,itwasnotuncommontofindmemberswhodidnotintendtoenterthelegalprofession.Thosewhodid,however,hadalongandarduoustraining.Theenteringstudent,aftertwoyearsofinstructioninelementarylawasamemberofanInnofChancery,wasadmittedtotheInnofCourttowhichitwasattached.Forthenextfourorfiveyearshewastrainedfirstinansweringlegalquestionsandsecondinarguingmootcases.Atthatpoint,hebecameaninnerbarristerandcouldlookforwardtoanothereightyearsoftraining.Onlythenwashecalledtothebarasanutter(orouter)barristerandpermittedtopracticebeforeKingsBench.,Foratime,innerbarristerscouldactasattorneys.Ifattorneysactedforfees,theywererequired(byaseriesofstatutesbeginningwiththeorderofEdwardIin1292)tobeapprovedbythejudges.Intheeighteenthcentury,withtheformationoftheSocietyofGentlemenPracticersintheCourtsofLawandEquity,thename“attorney”wasdroppedinfavoroftheterm“solicitor.”Thatwasthesolicitorsprofessionalsocietyuntil1903whentheLawSocietycameintobeing.TheInnsofCourtceasedtoteachlawduringtheEnglishCivilWar(1642-1646),anddidnotbeginagainuntil1846.LegaleducationwasnonexistentinEnglandduringthosetwocenturies.,WilliamBlackstone,In1758WilliamBlackstonewasappointedtotheVinerianChairatOxfordUniversity.Blackstonesfamouslectures,andtheCommentariesontheLawsofEnglandthatheproduced,werenotintendedexclusivelyforfuturepractitioners.IntheIntroductiontohisCommentarieshewrotethathethought“*itanundeniableposition,thatcompetentknowledgeofthelawsofthatsociety,inwhichwelive,istheproperaccomplishmentofeverygentlemanandscholar;anhighlyuseful,Ihadalmostsaidessential,partofliberalandpoliteeducation.”TheCommentarieshadtremendousinfluenceinthecolonies,andwerestudiedbygenerationsofAmericanlawyersandjudges.Indeed,untiltheearly20thcenturythephrase“toreadBlackstone”meant“tostudylaw.”BlackstoneleftOxfordin1766topracticelaw.Nosuccessorwasappointed.,TherewassomelegaleducationinEnglandduringthenineteenthcentury,butnotmanystudents.CambridgeandOxfordofferedlawdegrees,andCollegeLondonhadalawfacultybutstudentswerefewinnumber.Towardtheendofthatcenturysomeprovincialuniversitiestaughtlaw,butmainlytothoseinterestedinpreparingforthesolicitorsexamination.FormallegaleducationinEnglandwasfirstrequiredbytheSolicitorsActof1974.Thisledanumberofprovincialuniversitiestoprovidelawcourses.Bythe1980salmostsixtyinstitutions,bothuniversitiesandpolytechnics,offeredlawcourses.,AnEnglishlawdegreeistakenattheundergraduatelevel.Itisnotapost-graduatelawschooldegreeasitisintheUnitedStates.Todayabuddingbarristermust1)firstbeadmittedtooneofthefourInnsofCourt;2)mustdineattheInnfortherequiredtimes;3)musttaketheexamination:PartIexaminationinlaw.PersonswithalawdegreeareexemptfromPartI.AllcandidatesmusttakethePartIIexaminationinadvocacyanddrafting.TheyprepareforthisexaminationbytakingapracticalcourseattheInnsofCourtSchoolofLaw(ICSL)andayearofapprenticeship,called“pupillage,”inthechambersofabarrister.TheICSLopenedin1964.ItofferscoursesinpreparationforPartIIbutisnotadegree-grantinginstitution.,TheLawSocietyregulatesthequalificationsforsolicitors.ThecurrentTrainingRegulationswereadoptedin1987,andamendedin1988.,AllcandidatesmustatsomepointenrollwithTheLawSociety,headquarteredinLondon.Lawgraduatescanbecomesolicitorsinthreeyears.DuringthefirstyearthecandidatepreparesfortheSolicitorsFinalExaminationbytakingoneyearofstudyatTheLawSocietysCollegeofLaworatapolytechnicinstitute.Thesubjectsinthisexaminationarethoseencounteredbysolicitors,suchasbusinessorganizations,conveyancing,andrevenuelaw,whicharenotgenerallyapartofauniversitylawdegreecurriculum.Thenexttwoyearsarespentasarticledclerktoasolicitor,orotherapprovedclerkshipsuchaswithalocalgovernmentagencyorinamagistratescourt.Amajoritygowithasolicitor.,Non-lawgraduatesmust,inadditiontotherequirementsforlawgraduates,beginbytakingayearofstudyattheschoolsmentionedtopreparefortheCommonProfessionalExaminationonsixcoresubjects:ConstitutionalandAdministrativeLaw,Contracts,Torts,CriminalLaw,LandLawandTrusts.Thesesubjectswouldhavebeenstudiedinalawdegreeprogram.Thisisfollowedbythelawdegreecandidatesrequirements.,4.1.2AMERICANLAWYERS,IntheNewWorldthereneverwasatimewhentheprofessionwasdividedintosolicitorsandbarristers.TheEnglishdivisionwaspartofasocialsystemwhichdidnotexist,atleastinitsfullrigor,intheNewWorld.Thesmallsizeofthecolonieslikewisemadesuchasystemunnecessary.,GenerallyspeakingintheUnitedStatesalllawyersareauthorizedtoperformbothfunctions,counsellingandadvocacy.Individuallawyersandlawyersinsmallfirmscommonlyengageinbothfunctions,althoughtheymayspecializeinthetypesofcasestheywilltake.Themembersoflargelawfirmsaretypicallydividedintothosewhoareexpertincourtroomwork,aminority,andtheotherswhospecializeinofficework.,Requirementsforadmissiontothebardifferedinthevariousstatesandatdifferenttimes.Insomestateseachcountycourtadmitteditsownlawyers.Inotherstatesadmissiontothebarinonecountyqualifiedthelawyertopracticeinanycountyofthatstate.Sometimesthehighestcourtcontrolledadmissiontothebar.Educationalrequirementsalsodiffered.Thestatesvariedfromarequirementofsevenyearsofpreparationtothreeyears.Somerequiredfeweryearsforcollegegraduates,orwaivedtherequirementifanexaminationwaspassed.,Untilthe1920s,mostprospectivelawyersweretrainedintheofficesofestablishedlawyers.Forafee,theywerepermittedtoworkaslegalclerks.StudentsreadCokeandBlackstone,andeditorsofvariouseditionsaddedannotationstobringthestatedlawinlinewiththencurrentAmericanlaw.Studentswouldbequestionedontheirreadingsbythelawyer.,TheearliestlawschoolwasthatofJudgeTappingReeveatLitchfield,Connecticut,formedabout1784.Thelecturemethodwasused,andthelectureswerenotpublishedbecausestudentscouldhaveboughtthelecturesandhaveavoidedpayingtuition.TheLitchfieldSchoolwashighlysuccessfulandtrainedmanyprominentlawyersfrommanystates.Bythe1830s,however,competitionfrompublishedcommentaries,suchasthosebyChancellorJamesKentandJudgeJosephStory,causedadeclineinstudents.Theschoolclosedin1833.,UniversityeducationinlawwasnotprominentbeforetheCivilWar.ThefirstwasatWilliamandMaryCollege,inVirginia,in1779,andcontinueduntil1861.Someefforts,suchasthoseattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandColumbiaCollege,weretransient.Harvarddevelopedanewmodelforlegaleducationin1815whenIsaacParker,ChiefJusticeofMassachusetts,wasappointedRoyalProfessorofLaw.Harvarddidnotplacelawintheuniversityscurriculum.TheLawSchoolwasseparate,andexceptforcoursesinRomanlawandpoliticalscienceitsstudentseducationwasentirelyprofessional.,PerhapsbecauseHarvardLawSchoolusedlecturesandtexts,asdidlawyersintheiroffices,itdidnotattractmanystudents.AfterthedeathofJosephStory,whowasitsmainattraction,in1845,theschoolenteredaperiodofdecline.TheappointmentofChristopherColumbusLangdellin1870andJamesBarrAmesin1873,however,heraldedanewera.,LangdellandAmesrevolutedlawteaching.Insteadofusinglecturesandtexts,theyintroducedtheconceptofthecasebook.ThefirstwasLangdells“ASelectionofCasesontheLawofContracts,”publishedin1871.Exceptforexplanatoryfootnotes,its1007pagescontainednotextbut350editedcasesdatingfromthe16thcenturyonward.Bytheendofthe19thcenturythecasebookmethodofinstructionwasalmostuniversalinAmericanlawschools.Today,casesareusedbutincompilationsknownas“casesandmaterials,”inwhichthematerialssupplementandoftendominatethecases.,LangdellandAmesalsoalteredtheconceptofwhoshouldteachlaw.Ratherthantoenlistprominentjudgesandlawyersasteachers,theysawlawteachingasaseparateprofession.Thetheorywasthattaughtlawisscientificlaw,notpracticallaw,andthatlegalsciencecouldbebetterdevelopedbythosenotinactivepractice.JamesBarrAmesneverpracticedlaw.Theconceptoflawteachingasaseparateprofessioncontinuestothisday,butwithouttheideathatlawisascience.InrecentyearslawteachinghascometoberecognizedasaseparateprofessioninEnglandaswell.,AftertheCivilWarlawschoolsstartedtobeformedatmanyuniversitiesasseparatedegree-grantinginstitutions.Today,lawschoolsrequirematriculantstohaveabachelorsdegree.Admissiontothebarrequiresthecandidatetohaveadegreegrantedbyalawschoolapprovedbythestatewhereadmissionissought.Barexaminationsvariedgreatlyuntilthe1930s.In1931theNationalConferenceofBarExaminerswasformedforthepurposeofimprovingthequalityofexaminationsandoffosteringuniformity.Todaythebarexaminationisuniforminallstates,exceptforapartthatstressesthepeculiaritiesofthestate,basicallylegalprocedure.,4.2THEBENCH,Themysteryofthecommon-lawjudgescaneasilybepresentedbutismuchmoredifficulttoexplain.Itisthis:thejudgesofEnglandstartedasthekingsmen,representinghispersonalinterests,andendedasprotectorsofthecitizenryagainstthekingsprerogative.Thismetamorphosiswasnotcompleteuntiltheseventeenthcentury,anditwasachangewhichprofoundlyaffectedAnglo-Americanlaw.Therewerenotruejudgesoutsidetheroyalcourts.Inthecommunalandseignorialcourtstherewereonlysuitorswhoperformedthejudicialfunctionbutwerenotprofessionalsbecausetheywereneithercareermennorspeciallytrained.Eventheearlyjusticesofthekingwerenotprofessionaljudges,becausetheyactedonanadhocbasis.,4.2.1EARLIESTJUDGES,ThefirsttruejudgesemergedwiththeCommonPleascourtattheendofthetwelfthcentury.Theirpositionswerefarfromsecure.Becausetheywereselectedfromthemenimmediatelyservingtheking,theyweresubjecttohiswhimforbothappointmentandremoval.Untilthemiddleofthethirteenthcenturymostofthemwereinclericalorders,althoughnotnecessarilyinvolvedwithclericalduties.Theirabilitytoholdchurchofficeandtoreceivetheproceedsthereofenabledeventhoseinthelowestorderstoentertheserviceoftheking,whopaidlowandoftenuncertaincompensation.Clericalstatusassumedacertainminimumofeducation,includingtheabilitytoreadandwriteaccomplishmentsnotoftensharedevenbythenobility.,Thecommon-lawsystemofchoosingjudgesfromthekingsfavoritesworkedwithafairdegreeofefficiencyuntilthereignofHenryIII(1216-1272).Thatreign,however,wasmarkedbyanotherrevoltofthebarons,moredevastatingthantherebellionthatledtoMagnaCartaintheimmediatelypriorreignofKingJohn.SimondeMontfort,EarlofLeicester,wassuccessfulinreducingHenryIIItopoliticalimpotenceaftertheBattleofLewesin1264,andthatvictorywasfollowedbythecreationofaCouncilofMagnatestoruletherealm.Thisunrest,whichbeganaround1256,endedonlywiththeaccessionofEdwardI(1272-1307).,In1289EdwardIfounditnecessarytopurgethejudiciary.Scandalousreportsweremadeconcerningthejudges,involvingallegationsofcorruption,bribery,murder,andotherheinouscrimes.AspecialcommissionwasappointedbytheKingtolookintothematter,andmanyofthechargesweresustained.Asoneresult,theChiefJusticeofCommonPleasfledthecountry.,Duringthistimeimportantlegaladvanceshadnonethelesstakenplace.ReformbeganwiththeStatuteofMarlboroughin1267andcontinuedthroughtheStatuteofWestminsterI(1275),theStatuteofGloucester(1284),andthevastStatuteofWestminsterII(1285).Intotal,thesestatutesconstitutedarevolutioninsubstantiveandprocedurallaw.,DuringorimmediatelyafterthisperiodapracticearoseoftheutmostimportancetoAnglo-Americanlaw:judgeswerechosennotfromthekingsfavorites,butfromeminentsergeants-at-law.Henceforthpracticinglawyersweretobethesolesourceofthehigherjudiciary.Thismeantthatacommunityofinterestbetweenthebenchandthebarwouldexisttoacloserdegreethaninanyotherlegalsystem.Whenin1292legaleducationwasentrustedtothejudges,thesystembecametotallyinbred.Lawyerstaughtprospectivelawyers,judgeswereselectedfromlawyers,andjudgessupervisedlegaleducation.Thissystemprovedtohaveahighdegreeofresistancetoforeignideasandtopurelyacademictheorizing.,4.2.2INDEPENDENCEOFTHEJUDICIARY,Thejudgesselectedfromthelawyerswerestill,however,appointedonlyduringthekingspleasure(durantebeneplacito).ItwasonlywiththeActofSettlementin1701thattheycametobeappointedforsolongastheybehavedthemselveswell(quamdiusebenegesserint).Theirsalariesbecamecertainatthattime,andjointactionofbothhousesofParliamentbecamenecessaryinordertoremovejudgesfromoffice.,Between1455and1461thefratricidalWarsoftheRosestookplace.Theswiftlychangingfortunesofbattlemadeimpolitic,ifnotimpossible,judicialalignmentwithanyparticularfaction.Asaresult,thejudiciaryremainedimmunefrompoliticalinterference,andastrongprecedentwascreatedfortheremovalofjudgesfrompolitics.,LordCoke,duringhisstruggleswithJamesI(1603-1625),laidafurtherbasisfortheindependenceofthejudiciary.Twocasesdecidedbythatmemorablejurist,whoatonetimeoranotherheldnearlyeveryimportantEnglishlegalpost,standasfirmprecedentsfortheruleoflawandthesupremacyofthecourts.Tudormonarchsbelievedthattheyhadthepowertoregulate,throughtheissueofroyalproclamations,withouttheconsentofParliament.,Thecaseofproclamations,On20September1610,SirEdwardCoke,thenChiefJusticeoftheCommonPleas,wascalledbeforethePrivyCouncilandhewasaskedtogivealegalopinionastowhethertheKing,byproclamation,mightprohibitnewbuildingsinLondon,orthemakingofstarchorwheat,the