2胡壮麟语言学复习及答案

1胡壮麟语言学复习及答案CHAPTERIINTRODUCTIONIVDEFINETHEFOLLOWINGTERMS41LINGUISTICS42PHONOLOGY43SYNTAX44PRAGMATICS45PSYCHOLINGUISTICS46LANGUAGE47PHONETICS48MORPHOLOGY49SEMANTICS50SOCIOLINGUISTICS51APPLIEDLINGUISTICS52ARBITRARINESS53PRODUCTIVITY54DISPLACEMENT55DUALITY56DESIGNFEATURES57COMPETENCE58PERFORMANCE59LANGUE60PAROLEVANSWERTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSASCOMPREHENSIVELYASPOSSIBLEGIVEEXAMPLESFORILLUSTRATIONIFNECESSARY61LANGUAGEISGENERALLYDEFINEDASASYSTEMOFARBITRARYVOCALSYMBOLSUSEDFORHUMANCOMMUNICATIONEXPLAINITINDETAIL62WHATARETHEDESIGNFEATURESOFHUMANLANGUAGEILLUSTRATETHEMWITHEXAMPLES63HOWISMODERNLINGUISTICSDIFFERENTFROMTRADITIONALGRAMMAR64HOWDOYOUUNDERSTANDTHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENASYNCHRONICSTUDYANDADIACHRONICSTUDY65WHYDOESMODERNLINGUISTICSREGARDTHESPOKENFORMOFLANGUAGEASPRIMARY,NOTTHEWRITTEN66WHATARETHEMAJORDISTINCTIONSBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLE67HOWDOYOUUNDERSTANDCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCE68SAUSSURESDISTINCTIONBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLESEEMSSIMILARTOCHOMSKYSDISTINCTIONBETWEENCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCEWHATDOYOUTHINKARETHEIRMAJORDIFFERENCES69DOYOUTHINKHUMANLANGUAGEISENTIRELYARBITRARYWHY2IVDEFINETHEFOLLOWINGTERMS41LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICSISGENERALLYDEFINEDASTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFLANGUAGE42PHONOLOGYTHESTUDYOFHOWSOUNDSAREPUTTOGETHERANDUSEDINCOMMUNICATIONISCALLEDPHONOLOGY43SYNTAXTHESTUDYOFHOWMORPHEMESANDWORDSARECOMBINEDTOFORMSENTENCESISCALLEDSYNTAX44PRAGMATICSTHESTUDYOFMEANINGINCONTEXTOFUSEISCALLEDPRAGMATICS45PSYCHOLINGUISTICSTHESTUDYOFLANGUAGEWITHREFERENCETOTHEWORKINGSOFMINDISCALLEDPSYCHOLINGUISTICS46LANGUAGELANGUAGEISASYSTEMOFARBITRARYVOCALSYMBOLSUSEDFORHUMANCOMMUNICATION47PHONETICSTHESTUDYOFSOUNDSWHICHAREUSEDINLINGUISTICCOMMUNICATIONISCALLEDPHONETICS48MORPHOLOGYTHESTUDYOFTHEWAYINWHICHMORPHEMESAREARRANGEDTOFORMWORDSISCALLEDMORPHOLOGY49SEMANTICSTHESTUDYOFMEANINGINLANGUAGEISCALLEDSEMANTICS50SOCIOLINGUISTICSTHESTUDYOFLANGUAGEWITHREFERENCETOSOCIETYISCALLEDSOCIOLINGUISTICS51APPLIEDLINGUISTICSINANARROWSENSE,APPLIEDLINGUISTICSREFERSTOTHEAPPLICATIONOFLINGUISTICPRINCIPLESANDTHEORIESTOLANGUAGETEACHINGANDLEARNING,ESPECIALLYTHETEACHINGOFFOREIGNANDSECONDLANGUAGESINABROADSENSE,ITREFERSTOTHEAPPLICATIONOFLINGUISTICFINDINGSTOTHESOLUTIONOFPRACTICALPROBLEMSSUCHASTHERECOVERYOFSPEECHABILITY52ARBITRARINESSITISONEOFTHEDESIGNFEATURESOFLANGUAGEITMEANSTHATTHEREISNOLOGICALCONNECTIONBETWEENMEANINGSANDSOUNDS53PRODUCTIVITYLANGUAGEISPRODUCTIVEORCREATIVEINTHATITMAKESPOSSIBLETHECONSTRUCTIONANDINTERPRETATIONOFNEWSIGNALSBYITSUSERS54DISPLACEMENTDISPLACEMENTMEANSTHATLANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOTHINGSWHICHAREPRESENTORNOTPRESENT,REALORIMAGINEDMATTERSINTHEPAST,PRESENT,ORFUTURE,ORINFARAWAYPLACESINOTHERWORDS,LANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOCONTEXTS3REMOVEDFROMTHEIMMEDIATESITUATIONSOFTHESPEAKER55DUALITYTHEDUALITYNATUREOFLANGUAGEMEANSTHATLANGUAGEISASYSTEM,WHICHCONSISTSOFTWOSETSOFSTRUCTURE,ORTWOLEVELS,ONEOFSOUNDSANDTHEOTHEROFMEANINGS56DESIGNFEATURESDESIGNFEATURESREFERTOTHEDEFININGPROPERTIESOFHUMANLANGUAGETHATDISTINGUISHITFROMANYANIMALSYSTEMOFCOMMUNICATION57COMPETENCECHOMSKYDEFINESCOMPETENCEASTHEIDEALUSERSKNOWLEDGEOFTHERULESOFHISLANGUAGE,58PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCEISTHEACTUALREALIZATIONOFTHEKNOWLEDGEOFTHERULESINLINGUISTICCOMMUNICATION59LANGUELANGUEREFERSTOTHEABSTRACTLINGUISTICSYSTEMSHAREDBYALLTHEMEMBERSOFASPEECHCOMMUNITYLANGUEISTHESETOFCONVENTIONSANDRULESWHICHLANGUAGEUSERSALLHAVETOFOLLOWLANGUEISRELATIVELYSTABLE,ITDOESNOTCHANGEFREQUENTLY60PAROLEPAROLEREFERSTOTHEREALIZATIONOFLANGUEINACTUALUSEPAROLEISTHECONCRETEUSEOFTHECONVENTIONSANDTHEAPPLICATIONOFTHERULESPAROLEVARIESFROMPERSONTOPERSON,ANDFROMSITUATIONTOSITUATIONVANSWERTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSASCOMPREHENSIVELYASPOSSIBLEGIVEEXAMPLESFORILLUSTRATIONIFNECESSARY61LANGUAGEISGENERALLYDEFINEDASASYSTEMOFARBITRARYVOCALSYMBOLSUSEDFORHUMANCOMMUNICATIONEXPLAINITINDETAILFIRSTOFALL,LANGUAGEISASYSTEM,BECAUSEELEMENTSOFLANGUAGEARECOMBINEDACCORDINGTORULESSECONDLY,LANGUAGEISARBITRARYBECAUSETHEREISNOINTRINSICCONNECTIONBETWEENFORMANDMEANING,ORBETWEENTHESIGNANDWHATITSTANDSFORDIFFERENTLANGUAGESHAVEDIFFERENTWORDSFORTHESAMEOBJECTINTHEWORLDTHISFACTISAGOODILLUSTRATIONOFTHEARBITRARYNATUREOFLANGUAGETHISALSOEXPLAINSTHESYMBOLICNATUREOFLANGUAGEWORDSAREJUSTSYMBOLSTHEYAREASSOCIATEDWITHOBJECTS,ACTIONS,IDEAS,ETCBYCONVENTIONTHIRDLY,LANGUAGEISVOCALBECAUSETHEPRIMARYMEDIUMISSOUNDFORALLLANGUAGES,NOMATTERHOWWELLDEVELOPEDTHEIRWRITINGSYSTEMSARETHETERM“HUMAN“INTHEDEFINITIONINDICATESTHATLANGUAGEISPOSSESSEDBYHUMANBEINGSONLYANDISVERYDIFFERENTFROMTHECOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMSOFOTHERLIVING4CREATURESTHETERM“COMMUNICATION“MEANSTHATLANGUAGEMAKESITPOSSIBLEFORITSUSERSTOTALKTOEACHOTHERANDFULFILLTHEIRCOMMUNICATIVENEEDS62WHATARETHEDESIGNFEATURESOFHUMANLANGUAGEILLUSTRATETHEMWITHEXAMPLES1ARBITRARINESSASMENTIONEDEARLIER,THEARBITRARYPROPERTYOFLANGUAGEMEANSTHATTHEREISNOLOGICALCONNECTIONBETWEENMEANINGSANDSOUNDSFORINSTANCE,THEREISNONECESSARYRELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHEWORDELEPHANTANDTHEANIMALITSYMBOLIZESINADDITION,DIFFERENTSOUNDSAREUSEDTOREFERTOTHESAMEOBJECTINDIFFERENTLANGUAGES,ANDEVENWITHINTHESAMELANGUAGE,THESAMESOUNDDOESNOTREFERTOTHESAMETHINGHOWEVER,LANGUAGEISNOTENTIRELYARBITRARYTHEREAREWORDSWHICHARECREATEDINTHEIMITATIONOFSOUNDSBYSOUNDS,SUCHASCRASH,BANGINENGLISHBESIDES,SOMECOMPOUNDWORDSAREALSONOTENTIRELYARBITRARYBUTTHENONARBITRARYWORDSAREQUITELIMITEDINNUMBERTHEARBITRARYNATUREOFLANGUAGEMAKESITPOSSIBLEFORLANGUAGETOHAVEANUNLIMITEDSOURCEOFEXPRESSIONS2PRODUCTIVITYLANGUAGEISPRODUCTIVEORCREATIVEINTHATITMAKESPOSSIBLETHECONSTRUCTIONANDINTERPRETATIONOFNEWSIGNALSBYITSUSERSTHISISWHYTHEYCANPRODUCEANDUNDERSTANDANINFINITELYLARGENUMBEROFSENTENCES,INCLUDINGSENTENCESTHATTHEYHAVENEVERSAIDORHEARDBEFORETHEYCANSENDMESSAGESWHICHNOONEELSEHASEVERSENTBEFOREPRODUCTIVITYISUNIQUETOHUMANLANGUAGEMOSTANIMALCOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMSAPPEARTOBEHIGHLYRESTRICTEDWITHRESPECTTOTHENUMBEROFDIFFERENTSIGNALSTHATTHEIRUSERSCANSENDANDRECEIVE3DUALITYTHEDUALITYNATUREOFLANGUAGEMEANSTHATLANGUAGEISASYSTEM,WHICHCONSISTSOFTWOSETSOFSTRUCTURE,ORTWOLEVELS,ONEOFSOUNDSANDTHEOTHEROFMEANINGSATTHELOWERORTHEBASICLEVEL,THEREISTHESTRUCTUREOFSOUNDS,WHICHAREMEANINGLESS,DISCRETE,INDIVIDUALSOUNDSBUTTHESOUNDSOFLANGUAGECANBECOMBINEDACCORDINGTORULESINTOUNITSOFMEANINGSUCHASMORPHEMESANDWORDS,WHICH,ATTHEHIGHER5LEVEL,CANBEARRANGEDINTOSENTENCESTHISDUALITYOFSTRUCTUREORDOUBLEARTICULATIONOFLANGUAGEENABLESITSUSERSTOTALKABOUTANYTHINGWITHINTHEIRKNOWLEDGENOANIMALCOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMHASDUALITYOREVENCOMESNEARTOPOSSESSINGIT4DISPLACEMENTDISPLACEMENTMEANSTHATLANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOTHINGSWHICHAREPRESENTORNOTPRESENT,REALORIMAGINEDMATTERSINTHEPAST,PRESENT,ORFUTURE,ORINFARAWAYPLACESINOTHERWORDS,LANGUAGECANBEUSEDTOREFERTOCONTEXTSREMOVEDFROMTHEIMMEDIATESITUATIONSOFTHESPEAKERANIMALCALLSAREMAINLYUTTEREDINRESPONSETOIMMEDIATECHANGESOFSITUATION5CULTURALTRANSMISSIONHUMANBEINGSWEREBORNWITHTHEABILITYTOACQUIRELANGUAGE,BUTTHEDETAILSOFANYLANGUAGEARENOTGENETICALLYTRANSMITTEDORPASSEDDOWNBYINSTINCTTHEYHAVETOBETAUGHTANDLEARNED,BUTANIMALCALLSYSTEMSAREGENETICALLYTRANSMITTED63HOWISMODERNLINGUISTICSDIFFERENTFROMTRADITIONALGRAMMARTRADITIONALGRAMMARISPRESCRIPTIVEITISBASEDON“HIGH“RELIGIOUS,LITERARYWRITTENLANGUAGEITSETSGRAMMATICALRULESANDIMPOSESTHERULESONLANGUAGEUSERSBUTMODERNLINGUISTICSISDESCRIPTIVEITCOLLECTSAUTHENTIC,ANDMAINLYSPOKENLANGUAGEDATAANDTHENITSTUDIESANDDESCRIBESTHEDATAINANOBJECTIVEANDSCIENTIFICWAY64HOWDOYOUUNDERSTANDTHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENASYNCHRONICSTUDYANDADIACHRONICSTUDYTHEDESCRIPTIONOFALANGUAGEATSOMEPOINTINTIMEISASYNCHRONICSTUDYTHEDESCRIPTIONOFALANGUAGEASITCHANGESTHROUGHTIMEISADIACHRONICSTUDYASYNCHRONICSTUDYOFLANGUAGEDESCRIBESALANGUAGEASITISATSOMEPARTICULARPOINTINTIME,WHILEADIACHRONICSTUDYOFLANGUAGEISTHESTUDYOFTHEHISTORICALDEVELOPMENTOFLANGUAGEOVERAPERIODOFTIME65WHYDOESMODERNLINGUISTICSREGARDTHESPOKENFORMOFLANGUAGEASPRIMARY,NOTTHEWRITTENFIRST,THESPOKENFORMISPRIORTOTHEWRITTENFORMANDMOSTWRITINGSYSTEMSAREDERIVEDFROMTHESPOKENFORMOFLANGUAGE6SECOND,THESPOKENFORMPLAYSAGREATERROLETHANWRITINGINTERMSOFTHEAMOUNTOFINFORMATIONCONVEYEDANDITSERVESAWIDERRANGEOFPURPOSESFINALLY,THESPOKENFORMISTHEMEDIUMTHROUGHWHICHWEACQUIREOURMOTHERTONGUE66WHATARETHEMAJORDISTINCTIONSBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLETHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENLANGUE,ANDPAROLEWASMADEBYTHEFAMOUSLINGUISTFERDINANDDESAUSSUREEARLYTHISCENTURYLANGUEREFERSTOTHEABSTRACTLINGUISTICSYSTEMSHAREDBYALLTHEMEMBERSOFASPEECHCOMMUNITY,ANDPAROLEREFERSTOTHEREALIZATIONOFLANGUEINACTUALUSELANGUEISTHESETOFCONVENTIONSANDRULESWHICHLANGUAGEUSERSALLHAVETOFOLLOWWHILEPAROLEISTHECONCRETEUSEOFTHECONVENTIONSANDTHEAPPLICATIONOFTHERULESLANGUEISABSTRACTITISNOTTHELANGUAGEPEOPLEACTUALLYUSE,BUTPAROLEISCONCRETEITREFERSTOTHENATURALLYOCCURRINGLANGUAGEEVENTSLANGUEISRELATIVELYSTABLEITDOESNOTCHANGEFREQUENTLYWHILEPAROLEVARIESFROMPERSONTOPERSON,ANDFROMSITUATIONTOSITUATION67HOWDOYOUUNDERSTANDCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCEAMERICANLINGUISTNCHOMSKYINTHELATE1950SPROPOSEDTHEDISTINCTIONBETWEENCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCECHOMSKYDEFINESCOMPETENCEASTHEIDEALUSERSKNOWLEDGEOFTHERULESOFHISLANGUAGETHISINTERNALIZEDSETOFRULESENABLESTHELANGUAGEUSERTOPRODUCEANDUNDERSTANDANINFINITELYLARGENUMBEROFSENTENCESANDRECOGNIZESENTENCESTHATAREUNGRAMMATICALANDAMBIGUOUSACCORDINGTOCHOMSKY,PERFORMANCEISTHEACTUALREALIZATIONOFTHISKNOWLEDGEINLINGUISTICCOMMUNICATIONALTHOUGHTHESPEAKERSKNOWLEDGEOFHISMOTHERTONGUEISPERFECT,HISPERFORMANCESMAYHAVEMISTAKESBECAUSEOFSOCIALANDPSYCHOLOGICALFACTORSSUCHASSTRESS,EMBARRASSMENT,ETCCHOMSKYBELIEVESTHATWHATLINGUISTSSHOULDSTUDYISTHECOMPETENCE,WHICHISSYSTEMATIC,NOTTHEPERFORMANCE,WHICHISTOOHAPHAZARD68SAUSSURESDISTINCTIONBETWEENLANGUEANDPAROLESEEMSSIMILARTOCHOMSKYSDISTINCTIONBETWEENCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCEWHATDOYOUTHINKARETHEIRMAJORDIFFERENCESALTHOUGHSAUSSURESDISTINCTIONANDCHOMSKYSAREVERYSIMILAR,THEYDIFFERATLEASTINTHATSAUSSURETOOKASOCIOLOGICALVIEWOFLANGUAGEANDHISNOTIONOFLANGUEISAMATEROFSOCIALCONVENTIONS,ANDCHOMSKYLOOKSATLANGUAGEFROMAPSYCHOLOGICAL7POINTOFVIESANDTOHIM,COMPETENCEISAPROPERTYOFTHEMINDOFEACHINDIVIDUAL69DOYOUTHINKHUMANLANGUAGEISENTIRELYARBITRARYWHYLANGUAGEISARBITRARYINNATURE,ITISNOTENTIRELYARBITRARY,BECAUSETHEREAREALIMITEDNUMBEROFWORDSWHOSECONNECTIONSBETWEENFORMSANDMEANINGSCANBELOGICALLYEXPLAINEDTOACERTAINEXTENT,FOREXAMPLE,THEONOMATOPOEIA,WORDSWHICHARECOINEDONTHEBASISOFIMITATIONOFSOUNDSBYSOUNDSSUCHASBANG,CRASH,ETCTAKECOMPOUNDSFORANOTHEREXAMPLETHETWOELEMENTS“PHOTO”AND“COPY”IN“PHOTOCOPY”ARENONMOTIVATED,BUTTHECOMPOUNDISNOTARBITRARYCHAPTER2PHONOLOGYIVDEFINETHETERMSBELOW45PHONOLOGY46PHONEME47ALLOPHONE48INTERNATIONALPHONETICALPHABET49INTONATION50PHONETICS51AUDITORYPHONETICS52ACOUSTICPHONETICS53PHONE54PHONEMICCONTRAST55TONE56MINIMALPAIRVANSWERTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSASCOMPREHENSIVELYASPOSSIBLEGIVEEXAMPLESFORILLUSTRATIONIFNECESSARY57OFTHETWOMEDIAOFLANGUAGE,WHYDOYOUTHINKSPEECHISMOREBASICTHANWRITING58WHATARETHECRITERIATHATALINGUISTUSESINCLASSIFYINGVOWELS59WHATARETHEMAJORDIFFERENCESBETWEENPHONOLOGYANDPHONETICS60ILLUSTRATEWITHEXAMPLESHOWSUPRASEGMENTALFEATURESCANAFFECTMEANING61INWHATWAYCANWEDETERMINEWHETHERAPHONEISAPHONEMEORNOTIVDEFINETHETERMSBELOW45PHONOLOGYPHONOLOGYSTUDIESTHESYSTEMOFSOUNDSOFAPARTICULARLANGUAGEIT8AIMSTODISCOVERHOWSPEECHSOUNDSINALANGUAGEFORMPATTERNSANDHOWTHESESOUNDSAREUSEDTOCONVEYMEANINGINLINGUISTICCOMMUNICATION46PHONEMETHEBASICUNITINPHONOLOGYISCALLEDPHONEMEITISAUNITOFDISTINCTIVEVALUEBUTITISANABSTRACTUNITTOBEEXACT,APHONEMEISNOTASOUNDITISACOLLECTIONOFDISTINCTIVEPHONETICFEATURES47ALLOPHONETHEDIFFERENTPHONESWHICHCANREPRESENTAPHONEMEINDIFFERENTPHONETICENVIRONMENTSARECALLEDTHEALLOPHONESOFTHATPHONEME48INTERNATIONALPHONETICALPHABETITISASTANDARDIZEDANDINTERNATIONALLYACCEPTEDSYSTEMOFPHONETICTRANSCRIPTION49INTONATIONWHENPITCH,STRESSANDSOUNDLENGTHARETIEDTOTHESENTENCERATHERTHANTHEWORDINISOLATION,THEYARECOLLECTIVELYKNOWNASINTONATION50PHONETICSPHONETICSISDEFINEDASTHESTUDYOFTHEPHONICMEDIUMOFLANGUAGEITISCONCERNEDWITHALLTHESOUNDSTHATOCCURINTHEWORLDSLANGUAGES51AUDITORYPHONETICSITSTUDIESTHESPEECHSOUNDSFROMTHEHEARERSPOINTOFVIEWITSTUDIESHOWTHESOUNDSAREPERCEIVEDBYTHEHEARER52ACOUSTICPHONETICSITSTUDIESTHESPEECHSOUNDSBYLOOKINGATTHESOUNDWAVESITSTUDIESTHEPHYSICALMEANSBYWHICHSPEECHSOUNDSARETRANSMITTEDTHROUGHTHEAIRFROMONEPERSONTOANOTHER53PHONEPHONESCANBESIMPLYDEFINEDASTHESPEECHSOUNDSWEUSEWHENSPEAKINGALANGUAGEAPHONEISAPHONETICUNITORSEGMENTITDOESNOTNECESSARILYDISTINGUISHMEANING54PHONEMICCONTRASTPHONEMICCONTRASTREFERSTOTHERELATIONBETWEENTWOPHONEMESIFTWOPHONEMESCANOCCURINTHESAMEENVIRONMENTANDDISTINGUISHMEANING,THEYAREINPHONEMICCONTRAST55TONETONESAREPITCHVARIATIONS,WHICHARECAUSEDBYTHEDIFFERINGRATESOFVIBRATIONOFTHEVOCALCORDS56MINIMALPAIRWHENTWODIFFERENTFORMSAREIDENTICALINEVERYWAYEXCEPTFORONESOUNDSEGMENTWHICHOCCURSINTHESAMEPLACEINTHESTRINGS,THETWOWORDSARESAIDTOFORMAMINIMALPAIRVANSWERTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSASCOMPREHENSIVELYASPOSSIBLEGIVEEXAMPLES9FORILLUSTRATIONIFNECESSARY57OFTHETWOMEDIAOFLANGUAGE,WHYDOYOUTHINKSPEECHISMOREBASICTHANWRITING1INLINGUISTICEVOLUTION,SPEECHISPRIORTOWRITING2INEVERYDAYCOMMUNICATION,SPEECHPLAYSAGREATERROLETHANWRITINGINTERMSOFTHEAMOUNTOFINFORMATIONCONVEYED3SPEECHISALWAYSTHEWAYINWHICHEVERYNATIVESPEAKERACQUIRESHISMOTHERTONGUE,ANDWRITINGISLEARNEDANDTAUGHTLATERATSCHOOL58WHATARETHECRITERIATHATALINGUISTUSESINCLASSIFYINGVOWELS1VOWELSMAYBEDISTINGUISHEDASFRONT,CENTRALANDBACKINTERMSOFTHEPOSITIONOFTHETONGUEINTHEMOUTH2ACCORDINGTOHOWWIDEOURMOUTHISOPENED,WECLASSIFYTHEVOWELSINTOFOURGROUPSCLOSEVOWELS,SEMICLOSEVOWELS,SEMIOPENVOWELS,ANDOPENVOWELS3ACCORDINGTOTHESHAPEOFTHELIPS,VOWELSAREDIVIDEDINTOROUNDEDVOWELSANDUNROUNDEDVOWELS4THEENGLISHVOWELSCANALSOBECLASSIFIEDINTOLONGVOWELSANDSHORTVOWELSACCORDINGTOTHELENGTHOFTHESOUND59WHATARETHEMAJORDIFFERENCESBETWEENPHONOLOGYANDPHONETICSTHEYDIFFERINTHEIRAPPROACHANDFOCUSPHONETICSISOFAGENERALNATUREITISINTERESTEDINALLTHESPEECHSOUNDSUSEDINALLHUMANLANGUAGESHOWTHEYAREPRODUCED,HOWTHEYDIFFERFROMEACHOTHER,WHATPHONETICFEATURESTHEYPOSSESS,HOWTHEYCANBECLASSIFIEDPHONOLOGY,ONTHEOTHERHAND,ISINTERESTEDINTHESYSTEMOFSOUNDSOFAPARTICULARLANGUAGEITAIMSTODISCOVERHOWSPEECHSOUNDSINALANGUAGEFORMPATTERNSANDHOWTHESESOUNDSAREUSEDTOCONVEYMEANINGINLINGUISTICCOMMUNICATION60ILLUSTRATEWITHEXAMPLESHOWSUPRASEGMENTALFEATURESCANAFFECTMEANING1THELOCATIONOFSTRESSINENGLISHDISTINGUISHESMEANING,SUCHASIMPORTANDIMPORTTHESIMILARALTERNATIONOFSTRESSALSOOCCURSBETWEENACOMPOUNDNOUNANDAPHRASECONSISTINGOFTHESAMEELEMENTSAPHONOLOGICALFEATUREOFTHEENGLISHCOMPOUNDSISTHATTHESTRESSOFTHEWORDALWAYSFALLSONTHEFIRSTELEMENTANDTHE10SECONDELEMENTRECEIVESSECONDARYSTRESS,FOREXAMPLEBLACKBIRDISAPARTICULARKINDOFBIRD,WHICHISNOTNECESSARILYBLACK,BUTABLACKBIRDISABIRDTHATISBLACK2THEMOREIMPORTANTWORDSSUCHASNOUNS,VERBSADJECTIVES,ADVERBS,ETCAREPRONOUNCEDWITHGREATERFORCEANDMADEMOREPROMINENTBUTTOGIVESPECIALEMPHASISTOACERTAINNOTION,AWORDINSENTENCETHATISUSUALLYUNSTRESSEDCANBESTRESSEDTOACHIEVEDIFFERENTEFFECTTAKETHESENTENCE“HEISDRIVINGMYCAR”FOREXAMPLETOEMPHASIZETHEFACTTHATTHECARHEISDRIVINGISNOTHIS,ORYOURS,BUTMINE,THESPEAKERCANSTRESSTHEPOSSESSIVEPRONOUNMY,WHICHUNDERNORMALCIRCUMSTANCESISNOTSTRESSED3ENGLISHHASFOURBASICTYPESOFINTONATION,KNOWNASTHEFOURTONESWHENSPOKENINDIFFERENTTONES,THESAMESEQUENCEOFWORDSMAYHAVEDIFFERENTMEANINGSGENERALLYSPEAKING,THEFALLINGTONEINDICATESTHATWHATISSAIDISASTRAIGHTFORWARD,MATTEROFFACTSTATEMENT,THERISINGTONEOFTENMAKESAQUESTIONOFWHATISSAID,ANDTHEFALLRISETONEOFTENINDICATESTHATTHEREISANIMPLIEDMESSAGEINWHATISSAID61INWHATWAYCANWEDETERMINEWHETHERAPHONEISAPHONEMEORNOTABASICWAYTODETERMINETHEPHONEMESOFALANGUAGEISTOSEEIFSUBSTITUTINGONESOUNDFOROTHERRESULTSINACHANGEOFMEANINGIFITDOES,THETWOSOUNDSTHENREPRESENTDIFFERENTPHONEMESCHAPTER3MORPHOLOGYIVDEFINETHEFOLLOWINGTERMS31MORPHOLOGYMORPHOLOGYISABRANCHOFGRAMMARWHICHSTUDIESTHEINTERNALSTRUCTUREOFWORDSANDTHERULESBYWHICHWORDSAREFORMED32INFLECTIONALMORPHOLOGYTHEINFLECTIONALMORPHOLOGYSTUDIESTHEINFLECTIONS33DERIVATIONALMORPHOLOGYDERIVATIONALMORPHOLOGYISTHESTUDYOFWORDFORMATION34MORPHEMEITISTHESMALLESTMEANINGFULUNITOFLANGUAGE35FREEMORPHEMEFREEMORPHEMESARETHEMORPHEMESWHICHAREINDEPENDENTUNITSOFMEANINGANDCANBEUSEDFREELYALLBYTHEMSELVESORINCOMBINATIONWITHOTHERMORPHEMES1136BOUNDMORPHEMEBOUNDMORPHEMESARETHEMORPHEMESWHICHCANNOTBEUSEDINDEPENDENTLYBUTHAVETOBECOMBINEDWITHOTHERMORPHEMES,EITHERFREEORBOUND,TOFORMAWORD37ROOTAROOTISOFTENSEENASPARTOFAWORDITCANNEVERSTANDBYITSELFALTHOUGHITBEARSCLEAR,DEFINITEMEANINGITMUSTBECOMBINEDWITHANOTHERROOTORANAFFIXTOFORMAWORD38AFFIXAFFIXESAREOFTWOTYPESINFLECTIONALANDDERIVATIONALINFLECTIONALAFFIXESMANIFESTVARIOUSGRAMMATICALRELATIONSORGRAMMATICALCATEGORIES,WHILEDERIVATIONALAFFIXESAREADDEDTOANEXISTINGFORMTOCREATEAWORD39PREFIXPREFIXESOCCURATTHEBEGINNINGOFAWORDPREFIXESMODIFYTHEMEANINGOFTHESTEM,BUTTHEYUSUALLYDONOTCHANGETHEPARTOFSPEECHOFTHEORIGINALWORD40SUFFIXSUFFIXESAREADDEDTOTHEENDOFTHESTEMSTHEYMODIFYTHEMEANINGOFTHEORIGINALWORDANDINMANYCASESCHANGEITSPARTOFSPEECH41DERIVATIONDERIVATIONISAPROCESSOFWORDFORMATIONBYWHICHDERIVATIVEAFFIXESAREADDEDTOANEXISTINGFORMTOCREATEAWORD42COMPOUNDINGCOMPOUNDINGCANBEVIEWEDASTHECOMBINATIONOFTWOORSOMETIMESMORETHANTWOWORDSTOCREATENEWWORDSVANWSERTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONS43WHATARETHEMAINFEATURESOFTHEENGLISHCOMPOUNDSORTHOGRAPHICALLYACOMPOUNDCANBEWRITTENASONEWORD,TWOSEPARATEWORDSWITHORWITHOUTAHYPHENINBETWEENSYNTACTICALLY,THEPARTOFSPEECHOFACOMPOUNDISDETERMINEDBYTHELASTELEMENTSEMANTICALLY,THEMEANINGOFACOMPOUNDISIDIOMATIC,NOTCALCULABLEFROMTHEMEANINGSOFALLITSCOMPONENTSPHONETICALLY,THEWORDSTRESSOFACOMPOUNDUSUALLYFALLSONTHEFIRSTELEMENT44DISCUSSTHETYPESOFMORPHEMESWITHEXAMPLESFREEMORPHEMESTHEYARETHEINDEPENDENTUNITSOFMEANINGANDCANBEUSEDFREELYALLBYTHEMSELVES,FOREXAMPLE,“BOOK”INTHEWORD“BOOKISH”BOUNDMORPHEMESTHEYARETHOSETHATCANNOTBEUSEDINDEPENDENTLYBUTHAVETOBECOMBINEDWITHOTHERMORPHEMES,EITHERFREEORBOUND,TOFORMAWORDSUCHAS“12ISH”IN“BOOKISH”BOUNDMORPHEMESCANBESUBDIVIDEDINTOROOTSANDAFFIXESAROOTISSEENASPARTOFAWORDITCANNEVERSTANDBYITSELFALTHOUGHITHASACLEARANDDEFINITEMEANING,SUCHAS“GENE”INTHEWORD“GENERATE”AFFIXESAREOFTWOTYPESINFLECTIONALANDDERIVATIONALINFLECTIONALMORPHEMESMANIFESTVARIOUSGRAMMATICALRELATIONSORGRAMMATICALCATEGORIESSUCHAS“S”INTHEWORD“BOOKS”TOINDICATEPLURALITYOFNOUNSDERIVATIONALAFFIXESAREADDEDTOANEXISTINGFORMTOCREATEAWORDSUCHAS“MIS”INTHEWORD“MISINFORM”DERIVATIONALAFFIXESCANALSOBEDIVIDEDINTOPREFIXESANDSUFFIXESPREFIXESOCCURATTHEBEGINNINGOFAWORDSUCHAS“DIS”INTHEWORD“DISLIKE”,WHILESUFFIXESOCCURATTHEENDOFAWORDSUCHAS“LESS”INTHEWORD“FRIENDLESS”CHAPTER4SYNTAXIVDEFINETHEFOLLOWINGTERMS35SYNTAX36SENTENCE37COORDINATESENTENCE38SYNTACTICCATEGORIES39GRAMMATICALRELATIONS40LINGUISTICCOMPETENCE41TRANSFORMATIONALRULES42DSTRUCT