外文翻译----控制测量的意义与方法

1、附录a 译文控制测量的意义与方法控制测量在一定区域内，为大地测量、摄影测量、地形测量或工程测量建立控制网所进行的测量。 控制测量包括：平面控制测量，是为测定控制点平面坐标而进行的；高程控制测量，为测定控制点高程而进行的；三维控制测量，为同时测定控制点平面坐标和高程或空间三维坐标而进行的。在测区内，按测量任务所要求的精度，测定一系列控制点的平面位置和高程，建立起测量控制网，作为各种测量的基础，这种测量工作称为控制测量。在一定的区域内为地形测图或工程测量建立控制网（区域控制网）所进行的测量工作。分为平面控制测量和高程控制测量。平面控制网与高程控制网一般分别单独布设，也可以布设成三维控制网。控制网具

2、有控制全局，限制测量误差累积的作用，是各项测量工作的依据。对于地形测图，等级控制是扩展图根控制的基础，以保证所测地形图能互相拼接成为一个整体。对于工程测量，常需布设专用控制网，作为施工放样和变形观测的依据。平面控制网包括：（1） 三角测量：三角测量是建立平面控制网的基本方法之一。但三角网（锁）要求每点与较多的邻点相互通视，在隐蔽地区常需建造较高的觇标。 （2） 导线测量：导线测量布设简单，每点仅需与前后两点通视，选点方便，特别是在隐蔽地区和建筑物多而通视困难的城市，应用起来方便灵活。随着电磁波测距仪的发展，导线测量的应用日益广泛。 （3） 三边测量：三边测量要求丈量网中所有的边长。应用电磁波测

3、距仪测定边长后即可进行解算。此法检核条件少，推算方位角的精度较低。 高程控制网包括：（2） 水准测量：用水准测量方法建立的高程控制网称为水准网。区域性水准网的等级和精度与国家水准网一致。高程控制网可以一次全面布网，也可以分级布设。各等级水准测量都可作为测区的首级高程控制。首级网一般布设成环形网，加密时可布设成附合线路或结点网。测区高程应采用国家统一高程系统。小测区联测有困难时，也可用假定高程。 （3） 三角高程测量：三角高程测量是根据两点间的竖直角和水平距离计算高差而求出高程的，其精度低于水准测量。常在地形起伏较大、直接水准测量有困难的地区测定三角点的高程，为地形测图提供高程控制。三角高程测量

4、可采用单一路线、闭合环、结点网或高程网的形式布设。三角高程路线一般由边长较短和高差较小的边组成，起迄于用水准联测的高程点。为保证三角高程网的精度，网中应有一定数量的已知高程点，这些点由直接水准测量或水准联测求得。为了尽可能消除地球曲率和大气垂直折光的影响，每边均应相向观测。国家水准网在全国领土范围内,由一系列按国家统一规范布设和测定高程的水准点所构成的网。又称国家高程控制网。为国家经济建设、国防建设和科学研究提供地面点高程,也为天文大地网、地形图测制提供高程控制。国家水准网采用由高级到低级,分几个等级布设,逐级控制、加密。各等级的水准路线构成闭合环线。一、二等水准路线是高程控制网的基础,沿地质

5、构造稳定、坡度平缓的交通路线布设,用精密水准测量施测。一、二等水准路线定期重复测量,用以研究地壳垂直运动。为了计算观测高差的有关改正,沿一、二等水准路线还要实施重力测量。三、四等水准路线加密一、二等水准网,直接为地形图测制提供高程控制。为了建立全国统一的高程控制网,必须确定一个水准基面,作为网中所有水准点高程的起算基准面,通常采用大地水准面作为水准基面,它是以沿海验潮站长期的海水面升降观测结果取平均值而确定的。严格说来,以不同验潮站所得的平均海面为基准来求同一水准点的高程,其结果各不相同。国家水准网一般采用一个验潮站所确定的平均海面作为水准基面。并在验潮站附近设置永久性水准原点,将水准基面可靠

6、地标定在地面上,由精密水准测量测定这一原点对于验潮站平均海面的高程,作为国家水准网推算高程的基准。 边角测量法边角测量法既观测控制网的角度，又测量边长。测角有利于控制方向误差，测边有利于控制长度误差。边角共测可充分发挥两者的优点，提高点位精度。在工程测量中，不一定观测网中所有的角度和边长，可以在测角网的基础上加测部分边长，或在测边网的基础上加测部分角度，以达到所需要的精度。小三角测量是在小测区建立平面控制网的一种方法，它多用于小测区的首级平面控制或三、四等三角网以下的加密，作为扩展直接用于地形测图的图根控制网(点)的基础。此外，交会定点法也是加密平面控制点的一种方法。在2个以上已知点上对待定点

7、观测水平角,而求出待定点平面位置的，称为前方交会法;在待定点对3个以上已知点观测水平角，而求出待定点平面位置的，称为后方交会法。区域控制网同国家控制网相比较，前者控制面积较小，控制点的密度大，点位绝对误差较小，精度较高。对于区域性平面控制网，根据测区面积、发展远景、因地制宜、经济合理的原则，在保证控制点的必要精度和密度的情况下，可以一次全面布网，也可以分级布网。分级布网通常先布设大范围的首级网，再分阶段进行低级控制点的加密。分级布网可以采用同一种测量方法，也可以采用不同的测量方法。设计时，应进行精度估算，测图控制网要求全网的精度相对比较均匀。工程测量专用控制网，有时需在大范围控制网内部建立较高

8、精度的局部控制网。区域控制网一般在国家控制网下加密，或以国家控制网为起算数据，以便统一坐标系统。若测区内无已知控制点可以利用时，可在网中任选一点用天文测量方法观测其经纬度，换算成高斯-克吕格尔直角坐标,作为起算坐标。又观测该点至另一点的天文方位角，将其换算成坐标方位角，作为起算方位角。在个别情况下，小测区也可采用假定坐标和磁北定向。三角网所需的起始边长可用测距仪器直接测出。当测区面积较小时，可将其视为平面。但在较大的区域内，则需考虑地球曲率的影响。为了合理的处理长度投影变形，应适当选择投影带和投影面。观测成果一般应归化到参考椭球面（或大地水准面）上，并按高斯正形投影计算3带内的平面直角坐标,以

9、便尽量与国家坐标系统一致，有利于成果、成图的相互利用。当测区平均高程较大时，为了使成果与实地相符，应采用测区平均高程面作为投影面。当测区中部远离 3带中央子午线时，应以测区中部子午线为中央子午线，采用任意带高斯正形投影（见高斯克吕格尔平面直角坐标系）。工程测量中的专用控制网，往往在某些方面有其特殊要求。在满足这一要求的前提下，可以有若干个不同的布网方案提供选择。随着计算工具的发展，可以应用最优化方法的理论确定最佳的设计方案。 平差计算建立平面控制网和高程控制网时，为了进行检核和提高精度，常有一定数量的多余观测。对观测值按最小二乘法原理进行平差计算，消除各观测值之间的矛盾，求得最可靠的结果和评定

10、测量结果的精度。对于观测精度较低的控制测量，可采用近似法进行平差计算。 平差原理测量平差是用最小二乘法原理处理各种观测结果的理论和计算方法。测量平差的目的在于消除各观测值间的矛盾，以求得最可靠的结果和评定测量结果的精度。任何测量，只要有多余观测，就有平差的问题。 平差目的为了提高成果的质量，处理好测量中存在的误差问题，要进行多余观测，有了多余观测，势必在观测结果之间产生矛盾，测量平差目的就在于消除这些矛盾而求得观测量的最可靠的结果，并评定测量成果的精度。平差应用 测量平差是德国数学家高斯于18211823年在汉诺威弧度测量的三角网平差中首次应用，以后经过许多科学家的不断完善，得到发展，测量平差

11、已成为测绘学中很重要的、内容丰富的基础理论与数据处理技术之一。计量科学与测绘科学都是以物理学、数学及近代计算机科学为基础的学科，本质上两者是相容、一致的。在计量学中，对测量不确定度给出的综合的不确定性评价，此评价不但考虑了观测时各种误差因素的联合影响，包括观测时随机效应的影响，一些系统效应的影响，也考虑了测量时其他因素的影响，文章主要针对这一问题进行探讨，旨在通过对“测量平差理论在计量中的应用”的本质内涵的深入探讨，期望这一问题得到缓解或解决，最终的目的是便于测绘仪器校准工作的开展。由于测量仪器的精度不完善和人为因素及外界条件的影响，测量误差总是不可避免的。为了提高成果的质量，处理好这些测量中

12、存在的误差问题，观测值的个数往往要多于确定未知量所必须观测的个数，也就是要进行多余观测。有了多余观测，势必在观测结果之间产生矛盾，测量平差的目的就在于消除这些矛盾而求得观测量的最可靠结果并评定测量成果的精度。测量平差采用的原理就是“最小二乘法”。考虑函数是待定常数，如果在一直线上，可以认为变量之间的关系，但一般说来，这些点不可能在同一直线上。记，它反映了用直线来描述时，计算值与实际值产生的偏差。当然要求偏差越小越好，但由于可正可负，因此不能认为总偏差时，函数就很好地反映了变量之间的关系，因为此时每个偏差的绝对值可能很大。为了改进这一缺陷，就考虑用来代替，但是由于绝对值不易作解析运算，因此，进一

13、步用来度量总偏差。因偏差的平方和最小可以保证每个偏差都不会很大。于是问题归结为确定中的常数和使为最小，用这种确定系数的方法称为最小二乘法。其精确定义可以从一组测定的数据中寻求变量之间的依赖关系,这种函数关系称为经验公式。最小二乘法如何寻之间近似成线性关系时的经验公式，假定实验测得变量之间个数 , , ,则平面上,可以得个 ,这种图形称为“散点图”,从图中可以粗略看出这些点大致散落在某直线近旁,我们认之间近似为一线性函数,下面介绍求解步骤，考虑函 ,其是待定常数.如在一直线上,可以认为变量之间的关系 。但一般说来,这些点不可能在同一直线上. ,它反映了用直来描 ,时,计算与实际产生的偏差。当然要

14、求偏差越小越好,但由可正可负,因此不能认为总偏时,函就很好地反映了变量之间的关系,因为此时每个偏差的绝对值可能很大。为了改进这一缺陷,就考虑来代替。但是由于绝对值不易作解析运算,因此,进一步来度量总偏差。因偏差的平方和最小可以保证每个偏差都不会很大，于是问题归结为确中的常 ,为最小，用这种方法确定系 ,的方法称为最小二乘法。最小二乘法是一种数学优化技术，它通过最小化误差的平方和找到一组数据的最佳函数匹配，是用最简的方法求得一些绝对不可知的真值。测绘中广泛使用的测量平差法，是基于最小二乘原理的测量数据处理方法，它是利用直接测量采集观测数据（观测向量），再利用此观测数据（ 观测向量）结合平差数学模

15、型，对被测量结果进行估计的过程，估计方法采用“ 数理统计学” 中著名的“ 最小二乘法”。平差处理结果包括被测量的测量结果和表征此测量结果不确定性的标准差（中误差）。测量平差法本质上相当于对测量中的随机误差进行了有效的减弱（ 采集数据量越大， 减弱效果越好， 直到几乎消除）， 对测量中不等权的非确定性系统误差（ 即大小水平不一致的非确定性系统误差）进行了合理的分配，但对于测量中等权的非确定性系统误差（即大小水平一致的非确定性系统误差）没有起到消除或减弱作用。所以，平差后所得的测量结果标准差（ 中误差），只是表征了随机效应导致的测量不确定性（ 度），是测量不确定度的随机分量，为了完全表征测量结果不

16、确定性（ 度）， 还需要考虑系统效应导致的不确定性（ 度） 并加以合成。测量平差法虽然包括了一定的现场测量条件，但其测量结果（平差结果）只是测得值所处范围的一个参数（随机误差）。在计量学中，测量的目的是为了确定被测量的量值。测量不确定度就是对测量结果质量的定量表征，测量结果表述必须同时包含赋予被测量的值及与该值相关的测量不确定度，才是完整并有意义的。用测量不确定度表征测量结果不确定性，既要考虑测量结果的系统误差效应，又考虑了测量结果的随机误差效应，严格说还考虑了测量结果的模糊效应，所以测量不确定度具有严密的科学性与严谨性，是测量结果不确定性的精确描述。随机误差（平差结果）是由于测量时的随机因素

17、或效应所引起的相对于被测量真值的偏差，这种随机因素或效应，将导致重复测量时测量结果值的分散性。这说明，随机误差具有随机不确定性，这种不确定性的具体特征就是值的分散性，随机误差应属于随机不确定性量，其数学期望（均值）为零。以上讨论了测量平差结果在计量学测量结果不确定度评定中，只是不确定度分量之一。因为，测量结果是被测量真值、系统误差、随机误差（中误差）这三个量的合成，故其不确定性应由这三个量的不确定性决定，研究测量结果不确定度应由这三个量的不确定度着手。仅考虑随机不确定性，是不全面不客观的。 附录b 外文译文significance and methods of control surveyco

18、ntrol survey in a certain area, for the geodesy, photogrammetry, topographic survey or engineering survey control network established by the measurements. control measures included: horizontal control survey is a control point for the determination of plane coordinates carried out; leveling, elevati

19、on control points for the determination carried out; dimensional control surveying, for the simultaneous determination of control point coordinates and elevation plane or space carried out three-dimensional coordinates. in the test area, according to the required accuracy of measurement tasks, deter

20、mination of a control point position and elevation plane, to establish survey control network, as the basis for various measurements, such measurements as control measurements. within a certain area topographic mapping and engineering measurements to establish control network (regional control netwo

21、rk) carried out survey work. divided into horizontal control and vertical control survey measurements. horizontal control network and vertical control network of the general layout separately, can also be laid into a three-dimensional control network. control network has control of the situation, li

22、miting the role of measurement error accumulation is the basis of the survey work. for topographic mapping, grade control is the basis for expansion of root control to ensure that the measured topographic maps can be spliced with each other as a whole. for the engineering survey, which require speci

23、al control network layout, construction setting and deformation as the basis for observation. horizontal control network include: (1) triangulation: triangulation to establish horizontal control network of the basic methods. however, triangulation (lock) to require every point and more links between

24、 adjacent points, as, in the hidden areas often need to build a high survey markers. (2) traverse: travers simple before and after each point and two points only through television, point to facilitate the election, especially in hidden areas and buildings are many and difficult watching the city, c

25、onvenient and flexible application of them. as the electromagnetic wave range finder development of wire measurement is widely used. (3) triangular measurement: measuring network trilateration asked all the side. application of electromagnetic distance measurement can be carried out after determinat

26、ion of the side of solution. check this method fewer conditions, the lower the accuracy of azimuth projection. vertical control network include: (1) leveling: the standard of measurement to establish the elevation control network known as the standard network. regional level and accuracy level of ne

27、twork and national level network of the same. elevation control network can be a full cloth mesh can also be laid classification. each grade level can be measured as the heads of the surveyed area height control. primary net general layout as ring networks, encryption can be laid as to satisfy the l

28、ine or node network. measurement of elevation height system of national reunification should be adopted. joint testing of small test areas difficult, they can be assumed that elevation. (2) trigonometric leveling: trigonometric leveling is based on two points between the calculated vertical angle an

29、d horizontal distance to derive the elevation height difference, its accuracy is lower than the standard of measurement. terrain often large, difficult to measure directly the standard triangular area measured elevation points for the topographic mapping to provide elevation control. trigonometric l

30、eveling can use a single line, closed loop, network nodes in the form of network or elevation layout. trigonometric leveling routes are generally shorter and the height difference smaller side of the edge component, starting and ending at the level associated with the elevation measurement points. i

31、n order to ensure the accuracy of trigonometric leveling network, network should be a certain number of known elevation points, these points or by direct leveling leveling obtained. in order to eliminate as much as possible the earths curvature and atmospheric refraction perpendicular to the impact

32、of observation on each side should be opposite. national leveling network within the national territory, by a series of unified specifications laid by country and determination of the standard point of elevation posed by the network. also known as the national vertical control network. the national

33、economic construction, national defense and scientific research to provide the ground point elevation, but also for terrestrial network, topographic measurement system to provide elevation control. network of national standards adopted by the senior to junior, layout in several levels, sequential co

34、ntrol, encryption. form for each grade level closed loop route. the first and second line is the vertical control network level basis, along the tectonic stability of the traffic route steep, the layout and facilities with precise leveling measurements. the first and second level route regularly rep

35、eated measurements to study the vertical crustal movement. to calculate the observed height difference of the correction, along the first and second line will also carry the standard of gravity measurements. third and fourth level line encryption first and second level of net direct measurement syst

36、em for the topographic maps provide elevation control. in order to establish a unified national control network, to establish a level base surface, as a network for all levels starting point elevation datum, usually the geoid as a standard base surface, it is a long-term coastal tide gauge sea surfa

37、ce fluctuation observations were averaged and determined. strictly speaking, different from the mean tide gauge sea to seek the same level as the base point of elevation, and the results vary. national level networks generally use a tide gauge sea as determined by the average level of base level. ti

38、de gauge stations in the vicinity of a permanent standard of origin, the level base surface and reliable calibration of the ground, measured by the leveling tide stations for the origin of the average sea surface elevation, calculated as the national standard height of the base network. corner measu

39、rement corner measurement point of view both the observation control network, but also measure side. help control the direction of angular error, measured edge help control the length of the error. measurement can give full play to the corner of the advantages of both, to improve location precision.

40、 in the engineering survey, not necessarily the perspective of observing networks and all the side, you can angle the basis of net additional testing part of the side, or in the test network based on the plus side some of the angle measured in order to achieve the required accuracy . small triangle

41、in a small test area is measured to establish a method of horizontal control network, which are used for small test area of the primary horizontal control or third and fourth triangular following encryption, as a direct extension for topographic mapping in the mapping control network (dot) foundatio

42、n. in addition, intersection encryption method is a method of horizontal control points. known in two or more fixed observation point treatment of the horizontal angle, and find the location to be determined point plane, called the forward intersection method; to be determined more than 3 points on

43、the horizontal angle observations of known points, but find the location to be determined point of plane , called resection. network by comparison with the state-controlled network, the former control the smaller, the control point density, point and the absolute error is less accurate. for the regi

44、onal horizontal control network, according to the measured area, the development of vision, according to local conditions, the principle of economic rationality, control point in ensuring the necessary accuracy and density of circumstances, can a comprehensive distribution network, you can grade clo

45、th mesh. grade cloth net usually laid before the heads of large-scale network of low-level control points in phases and then encrypted. grade cloth mesh can be used with a new method, you can use different measurement methods. design, should be accurate estimates, mapping the whole network control n

46、etwork accuracy requirement is relatively uniform. surveying dedicated control network, sometimes in a wide range of high precision control network established within the local control network. network by the general control network in the country under the encryption, or to the national control net

47、work for the initial data for the same coordinates system. if the measured area can no known control point when the optional point in network measurement with astronomical observation of its latitude and longitude, converted to gauss - krger coordinate, as the starting coordinates. also observing th

48、e astronomical point to another point azimuth, be converted into coordinates of azimuth, as the starting azimuth. in individual cases, a small test area can be used also assumes that coordinates and magnetic north direction. triangulation can be required for the initial side rangefinder device direc

49、tly measured. when the measurement area is small, can be regarded as flat. but in the larger area, you need to take into account the curvature of the earth. in order to deal with a reasonable length of projection distortion, should be properly chosen projection zone and perspective plane. observatio

50、n results of the general should go to the reference ellipsoid (or the geoid), the calculation according to gauss conformal projection 3 with the plane rectangular coordinates, so as to maximize consistency with the national coordinate system is beneficial results, as map mutual advantage. when the a

51、verage elevation is large survey area, in order to make the results consistent with the field, the average elevation survey area should be used as a projection plane surface. when the central part measured from 3 with a central meridian, the central part should be measured for the central meridian m

52、eridian, with any band gauss conformal projection (see gauss - krger coordinate system). engineering survey of the dedicated control network, often in some areas have special requirements. in meeting the requirements of the premise, can have several different choices of cloth net programs. with the

53、development of computational tools, can be applied to the theory of optimization method to determine the best design. adjustment calculation the establishment of horizontal control network and the elevation control network, in order to check and improve the precision, often a number of redundant obs

54、ervations. on the observations by least squares adjustment calculation principle, to eliminate the contradiction between the observations, the most reliable results obtained and assess the accuracy of measurements. for the observation precision measurement of low control, adjustment calculation meth

55、od can be used approximation. adjustment theory measurement principles of least squares adjustment is dealing with a variety of observations of the theory and calculation method. measurement adjustment aims to eliminate the contradiction between the observations in order to obtain the most reliable

56、results and assessment of measurement accuracy. any measurement, as long as redundant observations, there is adjustment problems. adjustment purposes in order to improve the quality of the results, deal with measurement error problem, the need for redundant observations, with the extra observation,

57、is bound to cause contradictions between the results of observation, measurement adjustment aims to eliminate these conflicts is that the measurements obtained by the most reliable results, and to assess the accuracy of measurement results. adjustment application survey adjustment german mathematici

58、an gauss in 1821 1823 in hanover curvature measurement triangulation adjustment in the first application, after the constant improvement through the many scientists, to develop, measure adjustment has become a very important surveying and mapping rich in content, the basic theory and data processing

59、 technologies. measurement science and surveying and mapping are based on physics, mathematics and modern computer science-based disciplines, in essence, they are compatible and consistent. in metrology, the uncertainty of measurement uncertainty are given a comprehensive evaluation, this evaluation is not only considered when observing the joint impact of various error fact