现代语言学学习笔记.

1、现代语言学学习笔记第一章、绪论 Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic studyPhonetics, wh

2、ich studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communicationPhonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to formwordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences Sem

3、antics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings ofmind.Appli

4、ed linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Oth

5、er related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、 现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on high (religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But

6、 Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is correct or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The descrip

7、tion of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; i

8、t studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。 It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that differe

9、nt sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by

10、 sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity 。Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sen

11、tences, including those that they have never said or heard before.3) Duality 。It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the stru

12、cture of individual andmeaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) Displacement 。It means that language can be used to talk about wh

13、at happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak

14、er.5) Cultural transmission 。While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taughtand learned anew.5、 Chomsky 的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 proposed the distinction between com

15、petence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Acc

16、ording to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker s knowledge of motherhis tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes

17、 that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.6、 Saussure 是如何区分语言和言语的？The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.

18、 Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and t

19、he application of the rules. Langue is abstract;It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situa

20、tion.7、什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.8、口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writingin modern linguistics study for the followingreasons:1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution2) a l

21、arge amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language9、 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual use

22、10、能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication 11、几个术语Prescriptive:aims to lay down rules for correct behaviour.Descriptive:describe and analyzes the language people actuall

23、y use.Synchronic:the description of a language at some point in time.Diachronic:the description of a language as it changes through time .Synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole: the

24、realization of langue in actual use.Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12、Design featuresAmerican linguist Charles Hockett spedified 12 design features, five of which will be discussed h

25、ere.1) Arbitratiness 。Difference sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. The language that imitate natural sounds and compound words are non-arbitrary words.It make up only a small ercentage of the total number of words used in a language.2) Productivity.It makes possible

26、 the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3) Duality.language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.The lower or the basic level is a structure of meaningless sounds. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of

27、units of meaning such as morphimes and words.4) Displacement.Languages can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission.Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.13、名词解释1 L

28、inguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology ” : The study of how soundsare put together and used in communication is calle

29、d phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsis called morphology.For example,boy and-boyish,teach“”-teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences iscalled syntax.For esamp

30、le,” John like linguistics.”6 Semantics:The study ofmeaning inlanguage iscalled semantics. Forexample,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.”The sealcould not be found,The king became worried.Here”the word seal means differentthings.7 Pragmatics: The study ofmeaning in context o

31、fuse iscalled pragmatics.Forexample, “ I do ” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study oflanguage with reference to societyis calledsociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9、Psycholinguistics: The study oflanguage with reference to working

32、s of mind iscalled psycholinguistics.14.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram­mar is prescriptive; it is based on high (religious,literary)written lan­guage . It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is

33、descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.15.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchr

34、onic study; the de­scription of a language as it changesthrough time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of

35、time.16.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ­ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of lan­guage.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of

36、 the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.17. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist

37、 Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is

38、 the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from per

39、son to person, and from situation to situation.18. How do you understand competence and performance ?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language. This i

40、nternalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ugrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky,performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the spe

41、aker s knowledge of motherhis tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.19

42、. Saussure distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure s distinction and Chomsky s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of

43、language and his notion of langue is a materof social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not

44、 entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc. Take compounds fo

45、r another example. The two elements“ photo ”and “copy”in “photocopy ”are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.第二章、语音学Phonetics1、语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form, because the spoken form is prior to th

46、e written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.2、 语音学的三个分支是什么。它们研究的对象各是什么？Articulatory phonetics: It studies the human speech organs and the way in which thee speech sounds are produced.Acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the speech sounds;

47、 it deals with the sound waves through the use of such machines as a spectrograph. Auditory phonetics is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.3、什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的？Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go throug

48、h without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. When vocal cords are held together tautly sothat the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced in this way are voiced.4、宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？The broad transcription is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to repre

49、sent one sound. The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.5、英语的辅音是如何分类的？1) by place of articulation :a. bilabial such as p,b,m,wb. labiodental such as f,vc.dental such as ,T d. alveolar such as t,d,s,z,n,l,re. palatal such as , V ,

50、 t , dV , jf. velar such as k, g, N g. glottal such as h2) by manner of articulation.a.Stops such as p,b,t,d,k,gb.Fricatives such as f,v,s,z, , T , , V, hc. Afficates such as t, dV d. Liquids such as l, re. Nasals such as n,m,Nf. Glides such as w, j6、英语的元音是如何分类的？1) Vowels may be distinguished as fro

51、nt vowels such as i: i e A a, central vowels such as :, ,Qand back vowels such asu: J C: and B: in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into fourgroups: close vowels such as i:,i,u:,J,semi-close vowels such ase, : ,semi

52、-open vowels such as , C: , and open vowels such as ?, a, and :.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. The long vowels incl

53、ude i: : C: u: :，while the rest are short vowels.7、语音学和音系学有什么区别？They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they posses

54、s, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8、音素、音位和音位变体有什么区别？Phones are the

55、speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.; some do, some don t. A phoneme is a basic unit in phonology; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.It is an abstract unit. It is not a sound, but a collection of di

56、stinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.9、什么是超音位特征？它是如何影响语义的？1) The location of stress in English distinguishe

57、s meaning, such as import and import. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compund noun a a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: blackbird is a particular