二语习得Second_Language_Acquisition

1、III. Second Language Acquisition1. What is Second Language Acquisition and Research? 2. Theories of L2 learning Linguistic Perspectives Psychological Perspectives (behaviorism, cognitive psychology, connectionism, multidimensional model) Interactionist Perspective Sociocultural Perspectives3. Learne

2、r Language 语际语 4. Instruction and Second Language Acquisition Second Language Acquisitionn1. What is Second Language Acquisition and Research? Second language acquisition research has both theoretical and practical importance.nTheoretical importance: related to our understanding of how language is r

3、epresented in the mind and whether there is a difference between the way language is acquired and processed and the way other kinds of information are acquired and processed. 74Second Language AcquisitionnPractical importance: arises from the assumption that an understanding of how language are lear

4、ned will lead to more effective teaching practice.nIn a broader context, a knowledge of second language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programs for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and a

5、dults. 75 Second Language Acquisitionn1. The Grammar-Translation Methodn (structuralism) n2. The Audio-Lingual Method (听说法) n (structuralism, behaviorism s-r)n3. Communicative Language Teaching （交际法语言教学）n (cognitive science, linguistic competent, communicative n competent)n4. Content-based, Task-bas

6、ed Approaches （学科性方法） n (任务性方法) n (cognitive science, functional view of language, comprehensiblen input, output, motivation) 75+1Second Language AcquisitionGass s framework for investigating L2 acquisition explicit knowledgeL2 noticed comprehended intake implicit L2Input input input knowledge outpu

7、t Second Language AcquisitionnNoticingnIn order for some feature of language to be acquired, it is not enough for the learner to be exposed to it through comprehensible input. The learner must actually notice what it is in that input that makes the meaning. This idea has raised a considerable amount

8、 of interest in the context of instructed second language learning.n 86xx p15 Second Language AcquisitionnNoticing is of considerable theoretical importance because it accounts for which features in the input are attended to and so become intake. For noticed input to become intake, learners have to

9、carry out a comparison of what they have observed in the input and what they themselves are typically producing on the basis of their current interlanguage system. This is a conscious process, referred to as noticing the gap. Second Language AcquisitionnImplicit learning is coming to learn the under

10、lying structure of a complex stimulus environment by a process which takes place naturally, simply and without conscious operations. Explicit learning is a more conscious operation where the individual makes and tests hypotheses.Second Language AcquisitionnThe relationship between explicit and impli

11、cit knowledge, then, continues to be a key issue. One possibility, is that explicit knowledge functions as a facilitator, helping learners to notice features in the input which they would otherwise miss and also to compare what they notice with what they produce. In a sense, explicit knowledge may c

12、ontribute to intake enhancement, but it will only be one of several factors that does this. Second Language Acquisition2. Theories of L2 learningnInternal and external factors in the learning processna. Some linguistics: Language acquisition is based on the presence of a specialized module of human

13、mind containing innate knowledge of principles common to all languages. 76Second Language Acquisitionnb. In contrast, most psychologists have argued that language is processed by general cognitive mechanisms that are responsible for a wide range of human learning and information processing and requi

14、res no specialized module. 77Second Language AcquisitionA. Linguistic Perspectives UG grammarnLAD: Chomsky inferred that children must have an innate language faculty. This faculty, originally referred to as the language acquisition device. And later UG which was said to contain general principles u

15、nderlying all languages.n语言习得机制. 二十世纪60年代和70年代乔姆斯基及其他学者认为每一个正常的人生来就有一个语言习得机制。语言习得机制包括人类语言本质及结构的基本知识。 78 Second Language AcquisitionnUG 普遍语法 nAccording to UG theory acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to particular language, e.g. English, French or German, and learning wh

16、ich value is appropriate for each parameter.n根据普遍语法理论，习得一种语言意味着将普遍语法的原则应用于某一具体的语言，如英语，法语或德语，并理解哪个值适用于哪个参数。 79xx Second Language AcquisitionnIn the second language acquisition the investigations have centered around the resetting of parameters. For example, Japanese speakers acquiring English would n

17、eed to reset the head parameter from a head-last to a head-first position.neg. watashiwa Nihonjin desu n第二语言习得的调查以参数的重新设定为主。例如说日语的人学英语就得重新设定中心参数,使之从中心词为后,调整至中心词为先。 79xx Second Language AcquisitionnUG principlenThe principle of structure-dependency（结构依存关系）which states that language is organized in su

18、ch a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence (such as words, morphemes, etc.) Examples:n(a) She bought a new car yesterday.n(b) (My friend) bought a new car yesterday.n(c) (The friend that I met in America last year)n bought a new car yesterday.n(

19、d) (The friend I am closest to and who was so supportive when I lost n my job two years ago) bought a new car yesterday. 79+Second Language AcquisitionnYour cat is friendly. nIs your cat friendly?nThe car hit the girl.nThe girl was hit by the car.nStructure-dependency can therefore be put forward as

20、 a universal principle of language: whenever elements of the sentence are moved to form passive, questions, or whatever, such movement takes account of the structural relationships of the sentence rather than the linear order of words. 79+Second Language AcquisitionnThe UG theory claims that the fac

21、t that children never use computationally simple rules based on linear ordering, but instead use computationally complex structure-dependent rules, is because the hierarchical nature of human language is part of the human mind, and does not have to be learnt as such.Second Language AcquisitionnParam

22、eternIf the structure-dependency principle seems common to all languages, which are all organized hierarchically in terms of phrases (Noun-Phrases, Verb Phrase, Prepositional-phrase, etc.), there are many other rules which differ between languages. Otherwise, all languages would work in the same way

23、, which is obviously not the case. This is where parameters come in. Second Language AcquisitionnThe head parameter deals with the way in which phrases themselves are structured. Each phrase has a central element, called a head; in the case of a Noun-Phrase, the head is the noun, in the case of a Ve

24、rb-Phrase it is the verb, in the case of a Prepositional-Phrase, it is the preposition, and so on. Second Language AcquisitionnFor example, in the Noun-phrase the girl with blue trousers, the head-noun girl appears to the left of the complement with blue trousers; in the Verb-Phrase hit the girl, th

25、e head hit appears to the left of its complement the girl; in the Prepositional-Phrase with blue trousers, the head with is on the left of its complement blue trousers. (head-parameter)Second Language AcquisitionnEnglish is a head-first (中心词位于片语之首)language, because the head of the phrase always appe

26、ar before its complements. Japanese, on the other hand, is a head-last language, because the complements precede the head inside phrases. nNihon ni Japan in (head-last) 中心词位于片语之尾Second Language AcquisitionnThree ways of looking at UGn(1) UG operates in the same way for L2 as it does for L1. The lear

27、ners knowledge of L1 is irrelevant. n(2) The learners Core Grammar is fixed and UG is no longer available to the L2, particularly not to the adult learner.n(3) UG is partly available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2. There are other factors and they may interfere with the UG influe

28、nce. 80Second Language AcquisitionB. Psychological Perspectivesna. behaviorismnFor much of the first half of the twentieth century, behaviorism dominated psychology and education and, consequently, theories of L2 learning and teaching. Behaviorism was based on the view that all learning including la

29、nguage learning occurs through a process of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation. 81xxSecond Language AcquisitionnBehaviorism came under attack when Chomsky questioned the notion that children learn their first language by repeating what they hear in the surrounding environment. He

30、 argued that children produce novel and creative utterances ones that they would never have heard in their environment. 82xxSecond Language Acquisitionnb. Cognitive PsychologynA branch of psychology which deals with the study of the nature and learning of systems of knowledge, particularly those pro

31、cesses involved in thought, perception, comprehension, memory, and learning. In recent years cognitive psychology has been related to mentalistic approaches to linguistics, especially Chomskys TG grammar, which links language structure to the nature of human cognitive processes. 83Second Language Ac

32、quisitionnCognitive psychologists hypothesized that second language acquisition, like other learning, requires the learners attention and effort whether or not the learner is fully aware of what was being attended to. Some information processing theories suggested that language, like other skilled a

33、ctivity, is first acquired through intentional learning of what is called declarative knowledge, and then, through practice, the declarative knowledge can become “procedural knowledgeOnce language itself is largely automatic, attention can be focused on the content. The information processing model

34、offers a useful explanation as to why learners in the initial phases of learning seem to put so much effort into understanding and producing language. 83+1Second Language Acquisitionn“Declarative knowledge 陈述性知识陈述性知识(factual knowledge, in cognitive psychology and learning theory) vs. procedural know

35、ledge. 过程性知识过程性知识. Declarative knowledge is information that consists of consciously known facts, concepts or ideas that can be stored as propositions. For example, an account of the tense system in English can be presented as a set of statements, rules, or facts, i.e. it can be learned as declarati

36、ve knowledge (factual knowledge). This can be contrasted with procedural knowledge, that is knowledge concerning things we know how to do but which are not consciously known, such as “how to ride a bicycle”, or how to speak German”. 84 Second Language AcquisitionnProcedural knowledge is acquired gra

37、dually through practice, and underlies the learning of skills. Many aspects of second language learning consist of procedural rather than declarative knowledge. nOther theorists make a similar contrast between controlled and automatic processing. ncontrolled processing (not necessarily intentional)

38、授控处理(e.g. Learn to drive; learn English)nautomatic processing (occurring quickly and with minimal attention and effort)自动处理( e.g. drive to carry out a task; use English to communicate)n 85 Second Language AcquisitionThe learners four tasks1. AnalysisThe learner has to segment (切分成语段）the stream of ac

39、oustic signals into constituent（构成成份） units and to bring the latter into line with the parallel information on concurrent events which constitutes the situational context of the utterance.2. SynthesisThe learner has to try to put the sounds and words he has leant together in order to produce and com

40、prehend L2 utterances. 86Second Language Acquisitionn3. Embedding (嵌入）nThe news that (he had got married) surprised his friends.The learner has to make utterances fit the contextsituational and linguistic in which they occur. This requires a sort of balance of linguistic and contextual information.4

41、. MatchingThe learner must continuously compare his current language variety with the target variety. 87Second Language Acquisitionnc. Connectionism 连接主义n指将一种基于数字计算而不是符号操作、模拟认知功能的计算框架应用于语言学。模拟假设在大脑中起作用的各种结构和过程，网络的处理单位叫做神经元或节点,每一个单位从与其连接的其他单位获取信息，从而或被激活或被抑制。 87xxSecond Language AcquisitionnMany conne

42、ctionism studies provide evidence to support associative accounts of learning. There is growing interest in this explanation for second language acquisition. Related to this approach is the observation that much of the language that even highly proficient speakers produce consists of chunks or strin

43、gs of language that have a high probability of occurring together. Researchers working within these frameworks are proposing that language is represented in the mind as a very large number of linguistic units with varying degrees of likelihood of co-occurrence, rather than as a set of linguistic rul

44、es for creating novel sentences. 88xxegSecond Language Acquisitionnxx d. Multidimensional Model 多维模型多维模型nThe syntactic and morphological features were referred to as developmental. Other features referred to as variational, appeared to be learned by some but not all learners and, in any case, did no

45、t appear to be learned in a fixed sequence. 89Second Language AcquisitionnDevelopmental: Second language learners acquire certain syntactic and morphological features of the L2 in predictable stages. nVariational: L2 is not learned in a fixed sequence. 90-Second Language AcquisitionnBecause each sta

46、ge reflected an increase in complexity, a learner had to grasp one stage before moving to the next, and it was not possible to skip a stage. One of the pedagogical implications drawn from the research related to the Multidimensional Model is the Teachability Hypothesis that learners can only be taug

47、ht what they are psycholinguistically ready to learn. (e.g. present tense, present continuous tense, future tense, past tense, present perfect tense) 90Second Language AcquisitionC. Interactionist Perspectives (互动论互动论)nSome theorists who work primarily within a second language acquisition framework

48、assume that a great deal of language learning takes place through social interaction, at least in part because interlocutors adjust their speech to make it more accessible to learners. L1 studies showed that children are often exposed to a specialized speech which is tailored to their linguistic and

49、 cognitive abilities (that is, child-directed speech). 91xx Second Language AcquisitionnHowever, in Longs view, it was not in simplifying the linguistic elements of speech that interlocutors helped learners acquire language. Rather it was in modifying the interaction patterns, by paraphrasing, repea

50、ting, slowing or otherwise working with the L2 speaker to ensure that meaning is communicated. Thus, he hypothesized, interactional adjustments improve comprehension, and comprehension allows acquisition. ( caregiver, parental language) 92Second Language AcquisitionnLong went on to propose an extens

51、ion of Kreshens Input Hypothesis, which has come to be called the Interaction Hypothesis, and has attracted continuing attention. Long conducted a study of sixteen NS-NS and sixteen NS-NNS pairs, carrying out the same set of face-to-face oral tasks (informal conversion, giving instructions for games

52、, playing the games, etc.) He showed that there was little linguistic difference between the talk produced by NS-NS and NS-NNS pairs, as shown on several measures of grammatical complexity. Second Language AcquisitionnHowever, there were significant differences between the two sets of conversations,

53、 when these were analyzed from the point of view of conversational management and language functions performed. Specifically, in order to solve ongoing communication difficulties, the NS-NNS pairs were much more likely to make use of conversational tactics such as repetitions, confirmation checks, c

54、omprehension checks or clarification requests. Second Language AcquisitionExamples of interactional modifications in NS-NNS conversationNS NNSAnd right on the roof of the truck place the I to take it? Dog? (confirmation) duck. The duck. Duck.Duck Its yellow and its a small animal. It has two feet.I

55、put where it? (clarification) You take the duck and put it on top of the truck. Do you see the duck? (comprehension)Duck? (confirmation) Yeah. Quack, quack. That one. The one thatmakes that sound.Ah, yes. I see in the-in the head of him.Ok. See? (comprehension) Put what? (clarification)Ok. Put him o

56、n top of the truck.Truck? (confirmation) The bus. Where the boy is.Ah yes. 92 Second Language AcquisitionnModification of the interactional structure of conversation is a better candidate for a necessary (not sufficient) condition for acquisition. The role it plays in negotiation for meaning helps t

57、o make input comprehensible while still containing unknown linguistic elements, and, hence, potential intake for acquisition. Second Language AcquisitionnDifferent views about the role of input:n1. behavorist n2. mentalistn3. interactionist ninteractionism: Researchers who believe in interactionism

58、focus on the social context of language development and how the relationship between the language learner and the persons with whom he or she interacts influences language acquisition. 92xx Second Language AcquisitionD. Sociocultural Perspectives nTheorists working within a sociocultural perspective

59、 of L2 learning operate from the assumption that there is an intimate relationship between culture and mind, and that all learning is first social then individual. 93 xx Second Language AcquisitionnIt is apparent that culture, as an ingrained set of behaviors and modes of perception, becomes highly

60、important in the learning of a second language. A language is a part of a culture and a culture is a part of a language; the two are intricately interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture. The acquisition of a second language is also