语言学总复习

1、整理ppt1ContentslChapter 1 Language and LinguisticslChapter 2 Speech Sounds: phonetics and PhonologylChapter 3 Words and MorphologylChapter 4 Sentences: SyntaxlChapter 5 Meaning: SemanticslChapter 6 Meaning in use: PragmaticslChapter 7 Language, Culture and ThoughtlChapter 8 Language Acquisition and L

2、earninglChapter 9 Schools of linguistics整理ppt2Chapter 1 Language and Linguisticsl1.1 Language and Humanl1.2 Design features of languagel1.3 Functions of Languagel1.4 Linguistics and its branchesl1.5 Basic Concepts in linguistics整理ppt31.1 Definition of languagelIn the TextbooklLanguage is a means of

3、verbal communication. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including

4、 such associated factors as nonverbal cures, motivation, and social-cultural roleslLanguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 整理ppt41.2 Design features of languagelDesign features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that di

5、stinguish it from any animal system of communication. lArbitrariness/lProductivity/lDuality/lDisplacement/lCultural transmission整理ppt5ArbitrarinesslArbitrariness refers to the property of language which reveals that there is no direct natural link between the linguistic form and its meaning. lHoweve

6、r, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds. lBut the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. lThe arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 整理ppt6Do you think human languag

7、e is entirely arbitrary? Why?l Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of

8、 imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary. 整理ppt7ProductivitylProductivity refers to the property of language which enables language to generate n

9、ew utterances by its users. lThe property of language enables us to express our unlimited and new ideas. lProductivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.

10、整理ppt8DualitylDuality is the nature of language which shows that language is a system and consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. lAt the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds.

11、 But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. lThis duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.

12、 lNo animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 整理ppt9DisplacementlDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. lIn other words, lan

13、guage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker lAnimal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 整理ppt10Cultural transmissionlCultural transmission is the property of language which requires us human to learn a language.lHuma

14、n beings were born with the ability to acquire language.lThe details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans-mitted . 整理ppt11DiscretenesslDiscreteness is the property of language whi

15、ch enables the speakers of a language to identify the sound elements in its words. lEach sound is discrete and distinct and thus can be combined together to make different forms.lIt is the structural feature of language that words are made up of elemental sounds整理ppt121.3 Functions of languagelMalin

16、owski: pragmatic function; magical function; phatic functionlJakobson: referential, poetic, emotive, conative, phatic, metaligual functionl Halliday: metafunctions: ideational function; interpersonal function; textual function整理ppt131.4 Linguistics and its brancheslBasic branches of linguistics Phon

17、etics: speech soundslPhonology: rules in speech soundslMorphology: words and their formationlSyntax: rules of sentenceslSemantics: meaningGrammarPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemantics整理ppt14Other branches of linguisticslPragmaticslAnthropological linguisticslPsycholinguisticslSociolinguisticslNeurolingu

18、isticslApplied linguisticslComputational linguistics整理ppt151.5 Some concepts in LinguisticslDescriptive vs prescriptivelSynchronic vs diachroniclSpeech and writinglLangue and parolelCompetence and performance整理ppt161) Prescriptive and DescriptivelPrescriptivism prescribes rules of what is correct. I

19、t creates rules of grammarlDescriptivism describe the way people actually speak and write their language, not to prescribe how they ought to speak or write.整理ppt17How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? l Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on high (religious, lit

20、erary) written lan-guage . It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way. 整理ppt182) Synchronic and Diachron

21、iclThe diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a languagelThe synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.lSynchronic description has priority over diachronic description.整理ppt19How do you understand the

22、 distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?lThe description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de-scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular

23、point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time. 整理ppt203) Langue and ParoleLangueParoleThe abstract systemA collective body of knowledgeAcquired by all members of a community of speakersThe particular actualities of in

24、dividual utterancesThe contingent executive side of thingsThe relative superficial behavioral reflexes of knowledgeThe use of language in utterance整理ppt21What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?lThe distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdin

25、and de Saussure early this century. lLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. lLangue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the

26、concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. lLangue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. lLangue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from perso

27、n to person, and from situation to situation. 整理ppt224) Competence and performancelChomskylCompetence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relationslPerformance refers to what we do when we speak or listen. The infinite varied individual ac

28、ts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies and errors.整理ppt23How do you understand competence and performance ?l American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge o

29、f the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in lingu

30、istic communication. Although the speakers knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the p

31、erformance, which is too haphazard.整理ppt24Saussures distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?lAlthough Saussures distinction and Chomskys are very similar, they differ at least in tha

32、t Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.整理ppt25 Speech and writinglSpeech and writing are two system

33、s of language.lSpeech has priority over writing.整理ppt26Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?lFirst, the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of lan-guage. lSecond, the spoken form play

34、s a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes lFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue. 整理ppt27Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?l1) In ling

35、uistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. l2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. l3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at scho

36、ol. 整理ppt28Chapter Two: Speech sounds: phonetics and phonology2.1 Phonetics2.2 Phonology整理ppt292.1 PhoneticslPhonetics: the scientific study of speech sounds, concerning with defining and classifying speech sounds.lSpeech is a chain with three stages: production of the message, the transmission of t

37、he message and the reception of the messagelSo phonetics are in three branches: articulatory phonetics (identification and classification of individual sounds), acoustic phonetics (analysis and measurement of sound waves, the physical features of speech sounds) and auditory phonetics (perception of

38、speech)整理ppt30Speech sounds and non-speech soundslWe can make a variety of sounds. But we choose some of them in our speech. We make sounds by means of the air out of or into our body. So we have: Pulmonic and non-pulmonic speech sounds in our speech. Pulmonic egressive airstream vs nonpulmonic ingr

39、essive airstream整理ppt31Articulation of soundslSpeech organs: lungs, trachea, larynx, pharyngeal, oral cavities, and nasal cavities.lGlottis: vocal folds lVoicing: vibration of the vocal folds: voiced and voiceless: some consonants and all vowels整理ppt32Description of speech soundslWe use Phonetic Alp

40、habets to describe speech soundslInternational Phonetic alphabet (IPA): a unique written representation (a list of symbols) of every sound in every languagelDiacritics: any mark in sound description additional to letters or other basic elements. , lNarrow description: detailedlBroad description: gen

41、eral整理ppt33ConsonantslConsonants are produced by temporarily obstructing or restricting the airstream as it passes through the mouth. lConsonants may be divided into two groups in terms of 2 dimensions: the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. 整理ppt34整理ppt35VowelslVowels are charact

42、erized by the absence of obstruction of the airstream in the mouth. They are produced without any obstruction or restriction of the airstreamlThree dimensions for the configuration of the vowels : openness, backness and roundinglEach of the dimensions is continuous, the difference between any two vo

43、wels in terms of the openness, backness and rounding is always a matter of more or less lVowels can be distinguished as oral vowels and nasal vowels整理ppt36 Cardinal vowels l8 primary cardinal vowels lanother 8 cardinal vowels, the secondary cardinal vowels : the front rounded and the back unrounded

44、lMonophthong:a vowel whose quality remains stable during its production is known as monophthong. lDiphthong: A vowel whose quality changed during its production, in fact a combination of two monophthongs is known as diphthong. 整理ppt37整理ppt38整理ppt39Give the correct technical terms for the following e

45、xpressionslBoth lips bilabiallOpening between vocal cords voicelesslTeeth dentallHard roof of mouth palatallRidge behind upper teech alveolarlLower lip to upper teeth labiodentallBack of tongue to soft rear roof of mouth velarl 整理ppt40Write the corresponding sound segments according to the descripti

46、ons.la) Voiceless bilabial stop: _p_lb) Voiced alveolar nasal: _n_lc) Voiced velar stop: _ld) Central lax unrounded vowel: _le) High back tense rounded vowel: _u:_整理ppt41For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they all share.a. f v s fricative b. i: i e e:

47、 front c. d l s z t alveolard. b d g plosive, voicede. j w voiced 整理ppt42What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels? l1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth. l2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we

48、 classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. l3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.l 4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to

49、 the length of the sound. 整理ppt432.2 Phonology: Sound patternslPhonology focuses on the linguistic (phonological) rules that are used to specify the manner in which speech sounds are organized and combined into meaningful units, which are then combined to form syllables, words and sentences. lSounds

50、 are chosen to be combined in different languages: number and type整理ppt44What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?lThey differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are prod

51、uced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to con

52、vey meaning in linguistic communication. 整理ppt45Assimilation: a rule for neighbouring soundslSounds in neighbourhood may influence each other.ll and r becomes voiceless when they follow s, p, t and k, as in slay, pray, tray, and clay.lVowels become a bit longer when they are before voiced consonants

53、, as in lip and lid, bit and bid.lVowels before a nasal consonant become nasalized, e.g. fan, beam.整理ppt46Phonological ruleslgeneral form: AB/C_DlNasalization rule: vowelnasal/_nasallAspiration rule: voiceless stop aspirated/word initially and initially in stressed syllableslSequential rule: a sylla

54、ble sequence: (CCC) V (CCCC). Consonant clusters in syllable initial position must follow the following sequence: /s/:/p/,/t/,/k/:/w/,/r/,/l/,/j/lAssimilation rules: two phonemes become identical or similar when adjacent to each other, for instance, nasalization, devoicing, velarization, aspiration,

55、 dentalizationlDeletion and epenthesis: the dropping of certain sound or the adding of certain sound.整理ppt47Rule orderinglRules must be applied according to certain sequence. For instance, the plural form of desk, bed and bus follows three rules in surface output: a. The /s/ appears after voiceless

56、sounds. Devoicing rule b. The /z/ appears after voiced sounds Basic form c. The /z/ appears after sibilants Epenthesis Devoicing: zs/ -voice, C _ Epenthesis: /sibilant _ z 整理ppt48Rule orderingl The application of the rules follows the sequence: epenthesis-devoicing /desk + z/ /bed + z/ / bs + z/ N/A

57、 N/A s N/A N/A desks bedz bszIf we apply the devoicing rule first, then the epenthesis rulel/desk + z/ /bed + z/ / bs + z/l s N/A sl N/A N/A l desks bedz b s s整理ppt49Phoneme and allophonelAn abstract unit of speech sound is a phoneme. It is not further analyzable into smaller units. And it can disti

58、nguish meaninglE.g. seed and deedlA phoneme has different realizations in speech. The different realizations make the allophones of the same phoneme.lFor instance, /l/ are different in the words lap and pull. But the difference does not make different meaning整理ppt50Minimal pair and minimal setlA pho

59、neme can be checked by comparing two words which are similar in all members except one in the same position. For instance, man and men, bit and pit, seed and deedlWe call these pairs of words as minimal pairs.lAnd those in group, like bit, pit, sit, lit, fit, wit, etc. as minimal set整理ppt51Distincti

60、ve featureslA phoneme is different from another for a particular different feature, we call this feature, or many other features for distinction of phonemes as distinctive features.lVoiced and Voiceless, Rounded and Unroundedl3 distinctive features relating to tongue body features: high, low, and ba