语言学第四章chapter4

1、英语语言学：第4章 河南大学外语学院 马应聪 Chapter 4 Syntax 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪outline4.1 Introduction4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Fu

2、nctional Grammar 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪4.1 Introduction Syntax: study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words. Difference between morphology and syntax Morphology: the internal structure of words Syntax: the combination of words 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Syntactic

3、 rules (1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up. (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. E

4、very sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪4.2 Word Classes Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities

5、, phenomena and abstract ideas as if they were all things. cats, dogs, war, wedding, courage, beauty, rain, love, hatred Adjectives are words that describe the thing, quality, state or action which a noun refers to. beautiful, red Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving

6、 the “things” in events. run, walk, seem 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now Prepositions are words used w

7、ith nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or noun phrases. Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things. Articles, Exc

8、lamations, Numerals英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 The definitions above are useful for identifying most forms, but they are never completely accurate. A different approach might focus on some other properties of the word classes. For example, a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article (a, an

9、 and the) and can take inflections for possessive (-s) and plural (-s). Of course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Phrase structure rules Representation(通过词性表征句法通过词性表征句法): The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds Art + N + V + Art + N+

10、Prep+Art + N The rules which govern the structure of phrases are known as phrase structure rules or rewrite rules. Such rules allow for the generation of grammatical sentences in a language.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪4.3 The Prescriptive Approach Definition: An approach taken by some grammarians, mainly i

11、n eighteenth-century England, who lay down rules for the correct or “proper” use of English by following Latin.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 (a) You must not split infinitives. (b) You must not end a sentence with a preposition.To boldly go. To go boldly.Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with

12、. (funny)英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪4.4 The Descriptive Approach Definition: An approach taken throughout the 20th century which attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used by collecting samples. Various techniques may be employed. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪4.4.1 Structural analys

13、is A descriptive approach studying the distribution of linguistic forms in a language by means of test frames, which can be sentences with empty slots in them.（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系）（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系） (4) The _ makes a lot of noise. (nouns: car, radio, child, dog) (5) I heard a _ yesterday. (nouns: car,

14、radio, child, dog)英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 (6) _ makes a lot of noise. (noun phrases: it, the car, a dog, Peter, a new car, the scholar with an American accent) (7) I hear _ yesterday. (noun phrases: it, the car, a dog, Peter, a new car, the scholar with an American accent) 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪4.4.2 I

15、mmediate constituent analysis(Bloomfield: 直接成分分析法直接成分分析法) Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construc

16、tion are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate con

17、stituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis (IC).英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis) has two ways of representation: Tree diagram brackets英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Tree diagram (8) The man bought a car

18、. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Brackets Brackets can also be used but are arguably less easy to read. (9) a. the man bought a car b. the man bought a car c. the man bought a car d. the man bought a car英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Merit: Solving Disambiguity old men and women 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪4.5 Constituent Str

19、ucture Grammar (成分结构语法成分结构语法) A grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels. The main principle is labeling and bracketing based on the idea that linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions or can themselves be made u

20、p of smaller parts. (binary and verb-centered) 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 Tree diagram BinaryVerb-centered英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Generative Rules (早期转换语法的概念早期转换语法的概念短语结构语法短语结构语法) The syntax of a language is then seen as a set of rules which generate sentences in that language. SNPVPVPVtr. NPNPArtNVtr. buy,

21、 sell, build, repair, wash, etc.Nman, woman, car, house, bicycle, etc.Arta, an, the 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 (12) a. The man bought a car. b. The man sold a car. c. The woman repaired the bicycle. Sentences generated：英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪More complex rules There is a large number of sentences in Englis

22、h that such rules cannot produce. This set of rules has very limited generative power. The above rules only deal with simple noun phrases and transitive verbs. They do not allow us to deal with any part of the verb structure such as tense, modals or aspect. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪

23、Sentences generated： (13) a. The man sells the car in the garage. b. The woman washes the bicycle in the street. c. The boy repairs the bicycle in the house. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Merit: Solving Disambiguity (14) The boy repairs the bicycle in the house. in the house around the corner (Recursion, Rec

24、ursiveness递归性递归性) Mary helped George. Cathy thought Mary helped George. John said Cathy thought Mary helped George.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪A childrens rhyme: This is the house that Jack built. This is the cat that lived in the house that Jack built. This is the dog that chased the cat that lived in the

25、 house that Jack built. This is the man that keeps the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built. This is the woman that married the man that keeps the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Some problems of CSG: A. Lexical selecti

26、on restriction With simple constituent structure rules, any noun can be introduced in a combination with any verb. This does not happen in natural language. We cannot say: (15) *The belief washed an apple.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 B. Discontinuousness (16 )The boy cleaned the room up. (17) The student l

27、ooked the word up in the dictionary. C. Relation between sentences that seem to be closely related structurally and semantically (18) a. Brian hit George b. George was hit by Brian. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Noam Chomsky, (1928-)，founder of Transformational Grammar4.6 Transformational Grammar英语语言学：第4章河南大

28、学外语学院 马应聪 Grammar: there in Transformational Grammar, is in the broadest way, a theory of grammar including phonology and semantics. A linguistic theory We shall only focus on the syntactic aspect of transformational grammar. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪I. Classical theory Three parts: phrase structure rul

29、estransformational rules,morphophonemic rules. SNP+VP; simple active declarative kernel sentences (短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，但是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。但是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。)英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 A transformation rule is a sequence of symbols which could be rewritten conventionally as differen

30、t sequence. passive transformation NP1AuxVNP2NP2 AuxbeenVbyNP1 (19) a. The boy has repaired the bicycle. b. The bicycle has been repaired by the boy.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 The morphophonemic rules would apply to the output of the transformational rules. Their function is to provide the correct morpho

31、logical shape to the various parts of the structure and finally to give the appropriate phonological description. (公式公式 - 言语表达言语表达)英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪 Tree diagram 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪II. Standard theory competence and performance (Chapter 1) deep structure and surface structure The deep structur

32、e of a sentence is its most basic structure both semantically and syntactically. The surface structure is the form that people can actually say. It is fairly arbitrary. Two superficially similar structures may convey a substantially different message. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪deep structure and surface

33、structure Consider the following pair of sentences: (20) a. John is easy to please. b. John is eager to please. In the first sentence John is doing the pleasing, and in the latter he is on the receiving end. Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quit

34、e different deep structures. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Standard theory英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Different stages of generative grammar III. Extended Standard Theory IV. Revised Extended Standard Theory V. Government and Binding Theory (GB) Principles and Parameters Approach (P&P) VI. Minimalist Program (MP) 英

35、语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Other branches of GG: Throughout the development of transformational grammar, Chomsky has maintained the centrality of syntax. The syntactic component of transformational grammar is the generative core. Other components are interpretive and dependent on the basic and deep syntact

36、ic structure. Not everyone agreed with him on this point. Generative semantics: give semantics the central generative role. Case grammar: see syntax as central but prefer to work with “case” structures and dependency relations. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) Linguists who

37、 adopt this view are interested in relating the various kinds of structures and patterns that language shows to the functions that language fulfills and to the social settings in which it is used.Difference from TG: function and contextual, purposefulHallidays three meta-functions : ideational, inte

38、rpersonal, textualM.A.K Halliday英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Ideational 概念功能概念功能 Ideational: the function in which we conceptualize the world as a representation of experience.（及物性（动词）、语态、）（及物性（动词）、语态、） (19) The boy kicked the post. (The post was kicked by the boy) (20) The man liked the new house. (21) The

39、 child is homeless. (22) The girl laughed. (23) The visitor said “hello”. (24) There is a girl over there. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪TransitivityProcessSubcategoryNuclear participantsExampleMaterial物质过程物质过程Event(i.e. happening)Action(i.e. doing)Actor(动作者动作者), 过程过程(Process),Goal(目标目标), (beneficiary/recipi

40、ent, range/circumstance)She built the house (for the kids)She climbed (the mountain)Mental心理过程心理过程PerceptionCognitionAffectionSenser(感知者感知者),过程过程(Process), Phenomenon(现象现象)She saw the carShe forgot his nameShe liked his musicRelational关系过程关系过程Attributive(归属归属)Identifying(识别识别)Carrier(载体载体),Attribute

41、(属性属性);Token(标记标记), Value(价值价值)Maggie was our leaderMaggie was strongBehavioural行为过程行为过程Behaver(行为者行为者)She laughedVerbal言语言语Sayer(讲话者讲话者)She repliedExistential存在过程存在过程Existent(存在物存在物)There was a beautiful princess英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Interpersonal 人际功能人际功能 Interpersonal: set up

42、and maintain social and personal relations, including communication roles such as questioner and respondent, and express the language users own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance.（语气（句型）、情态、语调）（语气（句型）、情态、语调） Traditionally declarative, interrogative and imperative英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院

43、马应聪 Declarative: give information and perform the function of statement Interrogative: request something and perform the function of question Imperative: give instructions and perform the function of commands However, exact correlation between form and function only occurs in idealized sentences. We

44、 can use declarative to ask questions, and to issue instructions.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Mood（语气）（语气） Demand for, and offer of, goods or services Demand for, and offer of, linguistic information (27) a. Pass the salt. b. Please pass the salt. c. Can you pass the salt? d. Could you possibly pass the sal

45、t? e. You couldnt possibly pass the salt, could you? Politeness increases ：The more indirect the demand, the more polite it is felt to be. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Textual 语篇功能语篇功能 Textual: enable the speaker or writer to construct a text, and the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random s

46、et of sentences.（主位关系、信息结构（标记理论）、衔接）（主位关系、信息结构（标记理论）、衔接） We have to decide how to order the parts of the message so as (a) to make it clear to our audience, and (b) to emphasize, or make prominent, the essential elements of it.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Information structure 信息结构信息结构 given (old, known) +

47、new (unknown) marked vs unmarked (28) a. There is a bird on the tree. (unmarked) b. A bird is on the tree. (marked) (29) a. James enjoys tennis more than John. (less cumbersome) b. James enjoys tennis more than John enjoys tennis.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪thematic relation 主位关系主位关系 Theme主位主位: the first c

48、onstituent, the starting point of the clause - what it is going to be about. Rheme述位述位: the rest of the clause (30) a. Gas explosion killed thousands. b. Thousands were killed by gas explosion. (31) a. The rain came down. (unmarked) b. Down came the rain. (marked) 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪The book is on

49、 a tableThematicthemerhemeInformationoldnewFunctional approaches concentrating on textual aspects feature quite highly in discourse analysis and we will be returning to them in Chapter 7. 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Summary4.1 Definition4.2 Word Classes(ten:5+5) 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descri

50、ptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural Analysis (with slots) 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis (tree)4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar (tree, rules, merits, features, problems) 4.6 Transformational Grammar (grammar, classic, standard, stages, other branches) 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar (ideational,

51、interpersonal, textual) 英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Exercise 1. Define the following terms. syntax, word class, prescriptive approach, descriptive approach, IC analysis, ultimate constituent, transformational grammar, ideational function, interpersonal function, textual function 2. Draw two tree diagrams f

52、or the following sentence to show the different relationship of in the car. The dog bit the man in the car.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Questions for chapter three and chapter four 1. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? State what they are and illustrate how they work. 2. Give examples to tell the difference between derivation and compounding. 3. Give examples to illustrate the distinction between deep structure and surface structure.英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪Questions for chapter three and chapter four 1. How many types