大学思辨英语精读Unit-4-Organization-and-Institution参考答案

1、Unit 4 Orga ni zati on and In stitutio nText APreparatory Worka. Institutionalization:refers to the process of embedding some conception (forexample a belief, norm, social role, particular value or mode of behavior) within anorganization, social system, or society as a whole. The term may also be us

2、ed to refer tocommitti ng a particular in dividual or group to an in stituti on, such as a men tal orwelfare in stituti on.b. Solitary confinement: is a form of imprisonment in which an inmate is isolated fromany huma n con tact, ofte n with the excepti on of members of pris on staff. It is mostlyem

3、ployed as a form of punishment beyond incarceration for a prisoner, usually forviolations of prison regulations. However, it is also used as an additional measure ofprotection for vulnerable inmates. In the case prisoners at high risk of suicide, it can beused to prevent access to items that could a

4、llow the prisoner to self-harm.c. Parole: is the provisional release of a prisoner who agrees to certain conditions priorto the completion of the maximum sentence period. A specific type of parole is medicalparole or compassi on ate release which is the release of pris oners on medical orhumanitaria

5、n grounds. Conditions of parole often include things such as obeying the law,refrai ning from drug and alcohol use, avoid ing con tact with the parolees victims, obtaining employme nt, and mai ntai ning required con tacts with a parole officer.d. Rehabilitation: is the re-integration into society of

6、 a convicted person and the mainobjective of moder n penal policy, to coun ter habitual offending, also known as criminalrecidivism. Alternatives to imprisonment also exist, such as community service,probation orders, and others entailing guidance and aftercare towards the offen der.Main publicati o

7、ns: In flue ncing Attitudes and Changing Behavior (2 nd ed.). Readi ng,MA: Addis on Wesley., 1977, Psychology (3rd Editio n), Readi ng, MA: Addis on WesleyPublishing Co., 1999, Psychology And Life, 17/e, Allyn & Bacon Publishing, 2005, TheLucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil,

8、Random House, New York,2007Main research interests: social psychology, particularly prison study, social intensity syndrome study (related to discharged soldiers).Name of experime ntDescripti onexperime ntoftheRelati on of the experime ntwith the textExperime nt on obedie nceA seriesof socialpsychol

9、ogyexperime ntscon ductedbyYaleUn iversity psychologist Stanley Milgram. Theymeasured the willi ngn essClosely related with the textsince they are all about theeffect of assig ned roles.of study participa nts, menfrom a diverse range ofoccupationswithvaryinglevels of education, to obeyanauthorityfig

10、urewhoinstructed them to performacts conflicting withtheirpers onalcon scie nee; the experimentfound,unexpectedly,that a very high proportionof people were prepared toobey,albeitunwillingly,even if apparently causingserious injury and distress.Small-world experime nt(six degrees of separati on)Thesm

11、all-worldexperime ntcomprisedseveralexperime ntsconductedbyStanleyMilgramandotherresearchersexam ining theaveragepathlengthforsocial networks of people inthe Uni ted States. Theresearchwasgroundbreaking in that itsuggestedthathumansocietyisasmall-world-typenetworkcharacterizedbyshortpath-le ngths.Th

12、eexperime nts are ofte nassociatedwith the phrase“ sixdegreesofseparati on, ”althoughMilgram did not use thisterm himself.Not closely related with thetext since the experime nt isabout social n etwork ingbetwee nindividuals in the UnitedStates.Critical Read ingI. Un dersta nding the text 1.PartPara(

13、s)Mai n ideaI.An ecdoteandin troductio n1-2A case showing the necessity forpris on reformII. Body3-10(theexperime nt)The experiment of a mock prisonwith guards and prisoners werecarried out and had to end earlierbecause of the frighte ning effect.III. Findings11-13 (implicati on) In dividual behavio

14、r is largely underthe control of social forces andenvironmental contingencies rathertha n pers on ality traits, character,willpower,orotherempiricallyun-validatedcon structs.IV. Con clusi on14 (effects ofprison)The prison situation is guaranteedto gen erate severe pathologicalreactions in both guard

15、s andprisoners as to debase their humanity, and make it difficult for them tobe part of a society outside of theirpris on.2.(1) Zimbardo uses the specific example of a prisoner Situation to plead for prison reform and to justifythe experime nt he con ducted about the bad effect of pris on.(2) They c

16、on duct an experime nt about the effects of pris on on both guards and pris on ers.(3) They want to understand what it means psychologically to be a prisoner or a pris on guard.(4) The 24 participants are selected randomly from volunteer students in Palo Alto city and they wereran domly assig ned ro

17、les of guards and pris oners in a simulated prison.(5) At Stanford University in 1971.(6) The experiment has to be ended earlier than planned.(7) Because the effects of prison (abusing and being abused) on those being experime nted are frightening.(8) The results show that people underestimate the p

18、ower and pervasiveness of situati onal con trolsover behavior.(9) In dividual behavior is largely un der the con trol of social forces and en vir onmen tal con ti ngencies rather tha n pers on ality traits, character, willpower, etc. Many people, perhaps the majority,can be made to do almost anythin

19、g when put into psychologically compelling situations -regardlessof their morals, ethics, values, attitudes, beliefs, or pers onal convictions.II. Evaluation and exploration(1), Hypothesis: thechange of environment (including changed roles) affects one s behavior (stude nts are put into a mockpris o

20、n and assig ned opposite roles which are all different from their normal environment and role ofbeing a student or citizen) Cause: prison and assigned new roles (changed environment) Effect: rationalpeople with humanity were turned to abusers and victims Independent variable: the participants ashuma

21、n beings (the same human beings) (Stimulus: change of environment/roles) Dependent variable:behaviorThe experiment on the power and influence of roles assigned to ordinary individualsis basically valid andconvincing, and similar experiments also prove that most peoples behavior are influenced by the

22、 socialenvironment, particularly the new roles they are assigned. Unfortunately, the experiment cannot beconfirmed due to the ethical concern (the harm caused by the experiment on the participants). And also,since the participants of a social experiment are humans, the result might not be exactly th

23、e same(unlike the natural science experiment which can be repeated with precision and same result).(2)Similarities: the two experiments are all about the effect of assigned roles and social expectationson the behavior of the human beinsg.Differences: Zimbardo esxperiment focuses on the gradual chang

24、e of behavior on those who areassigned new roles (prison effect) while Stanley s experiment focuse on authority s influence onindividuals in normal circumstances (authority effect).(3)Power and its execution are closely related with the role assigned to the power-holder. The moreimportant role he/sh

25、e is given, the more likely he/she abuses it if there are no checks and balances fromother institutions. It is very important to fight against corruption (in campaigns or through legal means),but it s more important to set up mechanism to balance the role given to power-holders.(4)Zimbardo sstatemen

26、t or conclusion is based on his only experiment about humans and theirenvironment and cannot be repeated due to ethical reasons. It is reasonable to argue that most peopleare influenced by the (change of) environment and adapt to it quickly, which means personal“ freedom ”is conditioned. However, th

27、ere are exceptions, and this statement cannot explain thebehavior of those heroes who stick to their principles under any circumstances and would rather die thansurrender to enemy or power.(5)These exceptional examples are mostly heroes in extreme circumstances such as war or condition oflife and de

28、ath (Wen Tianxiang, Liu Hulan, John Brown etc.). They have to choose between life anddeath very quickly and sometimes they act from in sti net. There are other factors that result in theseexcepti onal cases -they all have very strong characters which have been fostered in hardship; they alsohave a v

29、ery strong faith and are ready to die for the cause they pursue.(6)Besides the reason Zimbardo mentions (psychological factor of self-image for the dono rs), there are atleast two more reas ons. One is religious reasomost people in the West are Christians who believe inthe teachings of Jesus Christ

30、and feel a duty to help the poor (in the form of material, money, or time).The other is related to the affluence of the West where the majority of people become well-off enough togive away a fraction of their wealth or money to maintain social stability. (Therereother reasons such as tax deduction i

31、n some countries to encourage donation.)(7)Simply put, the merit of “group think”is that it can mobilize a uniformed collective force to realize somegoal that individuals alone cannot hope to accomplish (through teamwork and national solidarity). Thedemerit of “groupthink ”is that the group leader s

32、 view might be o-snieded and flawed, and the wrongdecision or policy based on it could easily lead to mistakes or even disaster. Other demerits: thissituation may easily result in the circumstance of strong leader/dictator vs. obedient/populist followers;and in many cases the “truth ” is not neycine

33、stshaerhands of the majority.(8)Clinical trials are experiments done in clinical research. Such prospective biomedical or behavioralresearch studies onhuman participants are designed to answer specific questions about biomedical orbehavioral interventions, including new treatments and known interven

34、tions that warrant further studyand comparison. Clinical trials generate data on safety and efficacy. They are conducted only after theyhave received health authority/ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy issought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the ri

35、sk/benefit ratio of the trial - their approval doesnot mean that the therapy is safe or effective, only that the trial may be conducted. Depending onproduct type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers and/or patients into smallpilot studies, and subsequently conduct progres

36、sively larger scale comparative studies. The key pointhere is: All participants are volunteers who choose clinical trial when other means fail.Worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals ranges from the tens of millions tomore than 100 million used in animal experiment annually.

37、In the EU, these species represent 93% ofanimals used in research. If the same was true in the US then the total number of animals used inresearch is estimated to be between 12 and 25 million. Most animals are euthanized after being used inan experiment. Supporters of the use of animals in experimen

38、ts, such as the British Royal Society,argue that virtually every medical achievement in the 20th century relied on the use of animals in someway. The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences hasargued that animal research cannot be replaced by even sophistica

39、ted computer models, which areunable to deal with the extremely complex interactions between molecules, cells, tissues, organs,organisms, and the environment. Animal rights, and some animal welfare, organizations question theneed for and legitimacy of animal testing, arguing that it is cruel and poo

40、rly regulated, that medicalprogress is actually held back by misleading animal models that cannot reliably predict effects inhumans, that some of the tests are outdated, that the costs outweigh the benefits, or that animals havethe intrinsic right not to be used or harmedin experimentation.Language

41、EnhancementI. Words and phrases1.(1) C&F (2)B&C (3)E&F (4)E&F (5)A&D(6)C&E (7)A&F (8)B&F (9)D&E (10)B&C2.(1)拼图、勾画( 2)构建(名词)(3)建造(动词)( 4)建筑物( 5)档案( 6) (一列)纵队( 7)(用锉刀)锉( 9)提出、提交( 10)呼吁、要求( 11)上诉(12)情绪感染、情感诉求(13)吸引力(14)从悬吊下来(15)停职(16) 暂停( 17)悬浮( 18)吸引( 19)雇佣( 20)

42、交战、接触( 21)忙于( 22)面 对、触及3.(1) die away (2) need (3) call for (4) overwhelmed (5) assessed(6) result in (7) function (8) filed (9) prayed (10) predicting4.(1)served as (2)end up with (3)differentiate between (4)dissolved into(5) prevent fromtrade (7) attribute to (8) inflicted- (9)oderived from (10) p

43、ass outII. Sentences and discourse1.(1) This powerful appeal for prison reform was sent to me in a secret letter from a prisoner. He cannotreveal his name because of still being rehabilitated.(2) The guards were informed of the potential seriousness and danger of the situation as well as theirown we

44、aknesses (during the experiment).(3) In less than a week, the experience of imprisonment dissolved all good things that they ve learnedin a lifetime, including human values and s-eclfoncepts while the ugliest and most basic sick side ofhuman nature came into the surface.(4) Individual behavior is la

45、rgely influenced and dominated by social forces and environmental factorsinstead of by personality traits, character, willpower, or other components that cannot be proved byempirical evidences.(5) Thus we created a false belief in (personal) freedom by emphasizing individuals internal control (ofthemselves and of the environment) that actually does not exists.(6) However, since most participants in the