语言学教程课后答案定义归纳

1、Chapter I Invitation to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:定义特征 design feature:the dist in ctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guagedisti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals.功能 function:the role Ian guage plays in com muni cati on (e.g. to express ideas, att

2、itudes or inparticular social situations (e.g. religious, legal.共时的 synchronic:said of an approach that studies Ian guage at a theoretical ?po int'in time.历时的 diachronic:said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time.规定式 prescriptive:to make authoritaria n stateme nt abo

3、ut the correct ness of a particular use of Ian guage.扌苗写式descriptive:to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guage or variety.任意式 arbitrariness:the abse nee of any physical corresp ondence betwee n lin guistic sig nals and theentities to which they refer.二层式 du

4、ality:the structural orga ni zati on of Ian guage in to two abstract levels: mea nin gful un its (e.g.words and meanin gless segme nts (e.g. soun ds, letters.移位式 displacement:the ability of Ian guage to refer to con texts removed from the speaker s immedicsituati on.寒暄 phatic communion:said of talk

5、used to establish atmosphere or mai nta in social con tact.元语言 metalanguage:a Ian guage used for talk ing about la nguage.宏观语言学 macrolinguistics:a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.语言能力compete nee:uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules

6、 in a Ian guage.语言运用performanee:the Ian guage actually used by people in speak ing or writi ng.语言 Iangue:the Ian guage system shared by a speech com mun ity II.言语 parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter 2 Speech sounds1. Define the following terms:语音学 phonetics:the study of how speech s

7、ounds are produced, tran smitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three mai n areas of study articulatory pho netics, acoustic phon etics and perceptual/auditory phon etics.发音语音学 articulatory phonetics:the study of the product ion of speech soun ds, or the study of how speech sounds are produc

8、ed/made.音系学 phono logy:the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guages. It aims to discover the prin ciples that gover n the way sounds are orga ni zed in Ian guages, and to expla in the variati ons that occur.发音器官 speech organs:those parts of the huma n body invo Ived in the produc

9、ti on of speech, also known as ?vocal orga ns带声器官void ng:the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ?voiced . When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easi

10、ly , the sound produced is said to be ?voiceless国际音标 International Phonetic Alphabet:a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart, designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to in clude new discoveries and cha nges

11、 in phon etic theory and practice. The latest versi on has bee n revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.辅音 consonant:a major category of sound segme nts, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a n arrow ing which is so marked that air cannot escape without produci ng audible fricti on.元音vowel:

12、a major category of sound segme nts, produced without obstructio n of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively uni mpeded way through the mouth or the no se.发音方式 manner of articulation:ways in which articulati on of consonants can be accomplishe(a the articulators may close off the oral t

13、ract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b they may narrow the space con siderably; or (c they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approachi ng each other.发音部位 place of articulation:the point where an obstruct ion to the flow of air is made in produci ng a consonant.基本元音 Cardinal Vo

14、wels:a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of refere nee for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.半元音 semi-vowel:segme nts that are n either consonants nor vowels, e.g. j and w.滑元音 vowel glide:vowels that invo Ive a c

15、ha nge of quality, in clud ing diphth on gs, whe n a sin gle moveme nt of the ton gue is made, and triphth on gs, where a double moveme nt is perceived.协同发音 coarticulation:simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound s

16、o that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the follow ing soun d, it is known as ?an ticipatory coarticulati on if the；so und shows the in flue nce of the preced in g soun d, it is ?perseverative coarticutio n音位 phoneme:a unit of explicit sound con trast. If two sou

17、nds in a Ian guage make a con trast ,betwee n two differe nt words, they are said to be differe nt phon emes.音位变体allophone:varia nts of the same phon eme. If two or more pho netically differe nt sounds do not make a con trast in meaning, theyare said to be alloph ones of the same phon eme. To be all

18、oph on es, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.同化现象 assimilation :.If a followi ncJ ；tha process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of an eighbori ng sound, a term ofte n used synonym ously with ?coarticulati on sound is in flue ncing a pr

19、eced ing sound , it is called ?regressive assimilati on conv erse process, in which a preced ing sound is in flue ncing a follow ing soun d, is known as ?progressive assimilatio n剩余位置条件 Elsewhere Condition:The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules areinvolved in deri

20、ving the surface form from the underlying form.区别特征 distinctive features:a means of work ing out a set of phono logical con trasts or oppositi ons to captureparticular aspects of Ian guage soun ds, first suggested by Roma n Jacobs on in the 1940sand then developed by numerous other people音节 syllable

21、 :an importa nt unit in the study of suprasegme ntals. A syllable must have a nu cleus orpeak, which is ofte n the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and ofte n invo Ives an opti onal set of consonants before an d/or after the nu cleus.最大节首原则 Maximal On set Prin ciple:a prin c

22、iple for dividi ng the syllables whe n there is a cluster of consonants betwee ntwo vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, itis put into the on set rather tha n the coda.重音 stress :the degree of force used in produc ing a syllable. Whe n a syllable is prod

23、uced withmore force and is therefore more ?prominent, it is a ?stressed syllable in contrast tcless prominent, ?un stressedble.' sylla语调 intonation :the occurre nee of recurri ng fall-rise patter ns, each of which is used with a set ofrelatively con siste nt meanin gs, either on sin gle words or

24、 on groups of words of vary inglen gth.声调 tone : a set of fall-rise patter ns affect ing the meanings of in dividual words.Chapter 3 Lexic on1. Define the following terms语素 morpheme :the smallest un it of Ian guage in terms of the relati on ship betwee n expressi on and content, a unit that can not

25、be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically . Take for example, the word tourists contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning ist (meaning person who d

26、oes someth ing, and a mi ni mal unit of grammatical fun ctio n (in dicati ng plural. Mea nwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into differe nt types on differe nt dime nsions: (a free morphemes, which can sta nd by themselves as sin gle words, e.g. tour in tourist, and bo

27、und morphemes, which cannot n ormally sta nd alone, but which are typically attached to ano ther form, e.g.-ist, -s. (b lexical morphemes and fun cti onal morphemes. Both of these two types of morphemes fall in to the free II category . Thefirst category is that set of ordi nary nouns, adjectives an

28、d verbs that carry theof message we conv ey, e.g. house, l ong and follow. The sec ond category con sists largely of the functional words in the Ianguage such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it. (c derivatio nal morphemes and in flecti onal morphemes. T

29、hese two types of morphemes fall into the bound II category . Thederivatio nal morphemes are used to make new words in the Ian guage and are ofte n employed to produce words of adiffere nt grammatical category from the stem. For example, the additi on of the derivatio nal morpheme ess cha nges the a

30、djective good to the noun good ness. In con trast, i nflecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The-er in flectio n simply creates a differe nt vers ion of the a

31、djective, in dicat ing a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the differe nt categories of morphemes, the follow ing chart can be used: It should be poin ted out, morphemes may also be divided into roots and affixes, the root being that part of a word structure which is left whe n all the

32、 affixes have bee n removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are pote ntially un limited in nu mber in a Ian guage; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instanee, in try, tries, trying, tried, the root is try, and , -ing, -ed are affixes.复合词compound :refers to the words th

33、at consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compo un ds, there are Noun compo unds (e.g. daybreak, V erb compo unds (e.g. brain wash, Adjective compo unds (

34、e.g. dutyfree and Prepositi on compo unds (e.g. throughout. Mean while compo unds can be further divided into en doce ntric compo und and exoce ntric compo und in terms of its structural orga ni zati on. The head of a nominal or adjectival en doce ntric compo und is d is derived from a Verb, and it

35、is usually the case that the first member is a participa nt of the process verb. Con sider the followi ng two examples: self-c on trol and virus-se nsitive. The exoce ntric nominal compo unds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exoce ntric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some exa

36、mples: Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives take home Lackluster break nec 屈 折变化 in flect ion :is the mani festati on of grammatical relati on ship through the additi on of in flecti onal affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.词缀affix :the col

37、lective term for the type of formative that can be used whe n added to ano ther morpheme. Affixes in a Ian guage are limited in nu mber, and are gen erally classified in to three subtypes, n amely, prefix, suffix, and in fix, depe nding on their positi on around the root or stem of a word. Prefixes

38、are these affixes that have be added to the begi nning of a word (e.g. un- in un happy; suffixes are those added to the end of a word (e.sh in foolish; in fixes, as a third type of affix, is not n ormally found in En glish but fairly com mon in some other Ian guages. As the term suggests, it is an a

39、ffix that is in corporated in side ano ther word. It is possible to see the gen eral prin ciple at work in certa in expressi ons, occasi on ally used in fortuitous or aggravat ing circumsta nces by emoti on ally aroused En glish speakers: Absogoddamlutely! And Un fuck in gbelievable! In fact, all af

40、fixes are bound morphemes.派生词 derivation :is the most com mon word-formati on process to be found in the product ion of new En glish words. It is accomplished by means of a large nu mber of affixes of En glish Ian guage, and shows the relati on ship betwee n roots and affixes. For example: mis +repr

41、esent misrepresent, joy+ ful joyful, Sad + ness sadness. In contrast to inflection, derivation can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged, e.g. dis + card discard (changed and dis + obey disobey (unchanged. It is worth men ti oning that word forms that come from derivat

42、i on are relatively large and pote ntially open. Take the prefix pre- for example. One can easily list hundreds of words from any dicti onary , such as preamble, pre-arra nge, precauti on, precede, precede nt, precept, prec in ct, precog niti on, prec on diti on, precursor, among many others词根root :

43、refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further an alyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the word in ternatio nalism, after the removal of in ter-, -al and -ism, the left part is the root n ati on. Appa

44、re ntly, all words con tai n a root morpheme. And roots can be furtherclassified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme. First, free root morphemes are those that can sta nd by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A Ian guage

45、 may contain many morphemes of this type. Sec ond, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in En glish, such as -ceive in receive, perceive, an d con ceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, and submit; -ta in in retai n, contain, and mai ntai n; -cur in in cur, recur, and occur, etc. Third, a

46、few En glish roots may have both free and bound varia nts. For in sta nee, sleep (/sli?p/ and child (/t?aild/ are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, i.e. slept and child- in the plural form of child, n amely childre n, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound.

47、语素变体allomorph :A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certa in phon etic forms or varia nts in differe nt phon etic en vir onmen ts. Each of the phonetic forms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morphs. Th

48、e differe nt morphs that represe nt or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allomorphs of that morpheme. In practice, some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as dog II her 10匕抽也 ereotmay be considerable variation, that is to say, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or

49、 phonetic forms. For example, the plural sememe in English can be represented by the voiceless /s/, the voiced /z/, the vowel-cconsonant structure /?z/, the diphthong /a?/ found in the irregular form of /ma?s/, the nasal sound /n/ in /?ksn/, the long vowel /i/ in /ti? and the zero form /i?/ of /?i?p

50、/ and others. Each would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme.词干stem :is any morpheme or comb in ati ons of morphemes to which an in fleet ional affix can be added. For example, frie nd- in frien ds, and frie ndship- in frie ndships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be th

51、e same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more tha n one, derivati onal affix.黏着语素 bound morpheme:refers to those which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. For example, the word distempered has three morphemes, n amely, di

52、s-, temper, and -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes. There are two types of morphemes which fall in to the bound II category:derivatio nal morphemes and in flect ional morphemes. The derivatio nal morphemes are used to make new words in the Ian guage and are

53、 ofte n employed to produce words of a differe nt grammatical category from the stem. For example, the additi on of the derivatio nal morpheme ess cha nges the adjective good to the noun good ness. In con trast, i nflecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a word, but indicate

54、 aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The-er in flectio n simply creates a differe nt vers ion of the adjective, in dicati ng a comparative degree.自 由语素 free morpheme:correfers to those which may occur alone or which may con stitute words by

55、themselves. In English cats, cat is free since cat is a word in its own right. Free morphemes therefore n ecessarily con sti tute mono-m orphemic words. So all mono-m orphemic words are free morphemes. Poly-morphemic words/compo und words may con sist wholly of free morphemes, and En glish aircraft,

56、 godfather and housewife. As for its subtypes, free morphemes can be further divided in to lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. The former is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the message we conv ey, e.g. house, l ong and follow. The latter con sists largely of thefu

57、nctional words in the Ianguage such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it.词位 lexeme :in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word, lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a Ianguage which appears

58、 in differe nt grammatical con texts. or example, write II is thelexeme of the following set of words: write, writes, wrote, writing, written.词汇 lexicon :refers to the whole vocabulary of a Ian guage as aga inst grammar of a Ian guage.语法词 grammatical word:refers to those which mai nly work for con struct ing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or eve n text, such as, conjunctions, prepositi ons, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. So they are also known as Fun cti on Words.词汇词 lexical word:refers to those which have main ly wor