国际企业3重视文化、道德和规范课件

1、第三章：重视文化、道德和规范Emphasizing Cultures, Ethics, and NormsLearning ObjectivesDefine what culture is and articulate its two main manifestations: language and religionDiscuss how cultures systematically differ from each otherUnderstand the importance of ethics and ways to combat corruptionIdentify norms as

2、sociated with strategic responses when firms deal with ethical challenges Participate in three leading debates on cultures, ethics, and normsDraw implications for action学习目标给出文化的定义并清楚文化的两种主要表现：语言和宗教讨论不同文化间的系统性差异了解道德的重要性和遏制腐败的方法当公司应对道德挑战时，明确与战略反应有关的规范参与有关文化、道德和规范的三个主要讨论了解对企业实践的意义Where do informal ins

3、titutions come from?Although formal institutions are important, they make up a small part of “the rule of the game” that govern individual and firm behavior. As pervasive features of every economy, informal institutions can be found almost everywhere.Where do informal institution come from? They com

4、e from socially transmitted information and are part of the heritage that we call culture, ethics, and norms. Those within a society tend to perceive their own culture, ethics, and norms as “natural, rational, and morally right”. This self-centered mentality is known as ethnocentrism.非正式制度从何而来？尽管正式的

5、制度如政治、法律、经济都很重要，但它们只是支配个人和企业行为的游戏规则的一小部分，作为每个经济体中的普遍特征，非正式的制度几乎随处可见。非正式制度从何而来？它们来源于社会上信息交换，是被我们称为文化、道德和规范传统中的一部分。身处某个社会环境中的人们倾向于认为自己的文化、道德和规范是“自然、合理和道德上正确的。”这种以自我为中心的心态被称为民族中心主义。Definition of CultureAlthough hundreds of definitions of culture have appeared, we will use the definition proposed by the

6、 worlds foremost cross-cultural expert, Geert Hofstede, a Dutch professor. He defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.”First, there is no strict one-to-one correspondence between cultures and nation-st

7、ates.Second, there are many layers of culture, such as regional, ethnic and religious cultures.关于文化的定义这里我们采用世界上著名的跨文化专家荷兰教授吉尔特. 霍夫斯泰德对文化的定义；“一个人群的成员与另一个人群的成员相区分的共同思维方式”。第一、文化和国家之间没有严格的对应关系第二、文化有许多的层次，如地域、道德和宗教文化。我们将使用文化一词代表国家文化。这样做不仅为了方便，也反映出拥有约200个国家的这个世界的制度现实。LanguageAmong approximately 6000 langu

8、ages in the world, Chinese is the worlds largest in terms of the number of native speakers. English is a distant second, followed closely by Hindi and Spanish.The dominance of English as a global business language, known as the lingua franca in the jargon, is unmistakable.First, English-speaking cou

9、ntries contribute the largest share of global output.Second, recent globalization has called for the use of one common language.语言在全世界的近6000种语言中，汉语是作为母语使用人数最多的。英语则以较大落差排在第二位，紧随其后的是北印度语和西班牙语。然而，英语作为全球商务普遍用语，即术语“通用语言”（lingua franca),其主导地位是毋庸置疑的。这是由两个因素驱使的首先，讲英语的国家占全球总产出的最大份额，这种经济上的主导地位不仅促进了讲英语国家的国家与其他

10、国家之间的贸易和投资联系，也催生了一个持久的英语产品和服务市场。其次，近年来的全球化也要求使用一种通用的语言。ReligionReligion is another major manifestation of culture. Approximately 85% of the worlds population reportedly have some religious belief. The four leading religions are 1. Christianity; 2. Islam; 3 Hinduism; and 4. BuddhismBecause religious

11、differences have led to numerous challenges, knowledge about religions is crucial even for nonreligious managers.宗教宗教是文化的另一表现。据报道，大约85%的世界人口都有一定的宗教信仰。四大宗教分别是：1 基督教（大约有17亿信徒）；2 伊斯兰教（10亿）； 3 印度教（7.5亿）；4 佛教（3.5亿）由于宗教差异带来了很多的挑战，所以即使是对那些没有宗教信仰的经理来说，宗教知识也是至关重要的。Classifying Cultural DifferencesThis section

12、 outlines three ways to systematically understand cultural differences: 1 context; 2 cluster; 3 dimension approaches.这部分将概述系统地了解文化差异的三种方法：1 语境法； 2 族群法； 3 维度法The Context Approach The context approach is the most straightforward because it relies on a single dimension: context. Context is the underlyi

13、ng background upon which interaction takes place.In the low-context cultures, communication is usually taken at face value without much reliance on unspoken context. In other words, no means no.In contrast, in high-context cultures( such as Arab and Asian countries), communication relies on a lot on

14、 the underlying unspoken context, which is as important as the words used. For example, no does not necessarily mean no.Why is context important? This is because failure to understand the differences in interaction styles may lead to misunderstandings.语境法在探索文化差异的三种主要方法中，语境法是最简单的，因为它只依赖于单一的维度：语境。语境（c

15、ontext) 是相互交流发生的潜在背景。在低语境文化中（如北美和西欧国家），沟通往往是直截了当的而不会较多依赖于不明说的语境。换句话说，不行就是不行。相反在高语境文化中（如阿拉伯和亚洲国家），沟通则更多地依赖于没有明说的语境，它与说出来的话同样重要，例如，不行并一定意味着真的不行。语境为什么很重要？因为不懂得互相交流的方式差异可能会引起误会。The Cluster Approach The cluster approach groups countries that share similar cultures together as one cluster.There are three

16、influential sets of clusters.The first is the Ronen and Shenkar clusters.The second set of clusters is called the GLOBE clusters by professor Robert House. The third set of clusters is the Huntington civilizations, popularized by political scientist Samuel Huntington.People and firms are more comfor

17、table doing business with other countries within the same cluster/civilization. This is because common language, history, religion, and customs within the same cluster/civilization reduce the liability of foreignness when operating abroad.族群法族群法将拥有相似文化的国际组成为一个族群（cluster). 有三种具有影响力的族群。第一类是由管理学教授Simch

18、a Ronen 和 Oded Shenkar提出的Ronen与Shenkar族群。第二类族群被称为“全球”族群，是由管理学教授Robert House提出的，他确定了10个族群。第三个族群是Huntington文明，是由政治科学家Samuel Huntington提出的个人或企业与在同族群/同文明的其他国家做生意时要更融洽一些。因为，在进行海外运作时，同一族群/同一文明里的相同语言、历史、宗教和习俗会减少海外运作时被视为外国人的麻烦。The Dimension ApproachAlthough both the context and cluster approaches are intere

19、sting, the dimension approach is more influential.Hofstede and his colleagues have proposed five dimensions. First, power distance is the extent to which less powerful members within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.Second, individualism refers to the perspective that

20、the identity of an individual is fundamentally his or her own, whereas collectivism refers to the idea that the identity of an individual is primarily based on the identity of his or her collective group (such as family, village, or company).The Dimension Approach Third, the masculinity versus femin

21、inity dimension refers to sex-role differentiation.Fourth, uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which members in different cultures accept ambiguous situations and tolerate uncertainty.Finally, long-term orientation emphasizes perseverance and savings for future betterment. On the other han

22、d, members of short-term orientation societies prefer quick results and instant gratification.维度法尽管语境法和族群法都很有意义，但维度法更具有影响力。霍夫斯泰德及其同事提出了五个维度。首先，权利距离是指一个国家中，权利较小的人所期望并能够接受的权利分配不平等的程度。其次，个人主义是指个体特性以自我为中心的观点；而集体主义是指个体特征由其所属的集体特性所决定。第三、男性特征与女性特征维度表示了性别角色的差异。第四、不确定规避表示不同文化环境中的人们接受不确定的状况和忍受不确定性的程度。最后，长期导向强

23、调为了使将来而更美好而坚持和储蓄。而在短期导向的社会中，成员趋于追求迅速的结果和片刻的满足。总之，霍夫斯泰德的维度具有重要意义和指导性，很多后续的工作都证明了这一点。公平的说，这些维度的确为弄清文化在全球商务中的作用奠定了基础。文化与全球商务大量的全球商务活动都是与文化差异的语境法、族群法和维度法相吻合的。低语境国家的合同平均长度就要大于高语境国家较之与同族群中的国家做生意，企业在与不同族群中的国家做生意时，所做的准备工作要认真许多。权利距离较大的国家，经理人更偏爱集权；在权利距离小的国家，让下属反馈和参与得到了广泛的实践。个人主义的社会更容易培养出较高水平的企业家精神（如美国）文化与全球商务

24、在男性特征较高的社会里，标准的经理人是“自信的、决定性的、好争斗的”，在女性特征较高的社会中，经理人风格是“不易察觉的、凭直觉的而非决定性的、习惯于寻求共识的。”在不确定性规避较低的国家，经理人更多的依赖经验和培训，而在不确定性规避较高的国家，经理人则更多的依赖规则。长期导向文化可能培育出具有战略远见的企业，短期导向更关注于短期的收益。EthicsEthics refers to the principles, standards, and norms of conduct governing individual and firm behavior. Ethics is not only a

25、n important part of informal institutions but is also deeply reflected in formal laws and regulations.道德指指导和支配个人和企业行为的一系列准则、标准和规范。道德不仅是非正式制度的一个重要组成部分，而且也在正式的法律法规中得到了深刻的体现。Managing ethics overseas Managing ethics overseas is challenging because what is ethical in one country may be unethical elsewher

26、e. There are two schools of thought. First, ethical relativism follows the clich, “when in Rome, do as the Romans do.” Second, ethical imperialism refers to the absolute belief that “there is only one set of Ethics, and we have it”.Three “middle-of-the-road” guiding principles have been proposed by

27、Thomas Donaldson. First, respect for human dignity and basic rights; second, respect for local traditions suggests cultural sensitivity. Finally, respect for institutional context calls for a careful understanding of local institutions. 在海外管理道德在海外管理道德是一项非常艰巨的任务，因为在一个是道德的事情在另外的国家可能就是不道德的。有两个学派。第一种是道德

28、相对主义，它遵循成语“入乡随俗”。第二种是道德帝国主义，它是一种绝对的观点，认为“只有唯一的道德体系，那就是自己的道德体系。”商业道德学者托马斯提出了三条“中间路线”指导原则。首先，尊重人的尊严和基本权利，这应该成为世界范围内所有商务活动的绝对最低的道德门槛；第二，尊重当地的传统，这体现了一定的文化敏感性；最后，尊重制度环境要求对当地的制度有仔细的理解。Ethics and CorruptionEthics helps combat corruption, often defined as the abuse of public power for private benefits, usua

29、lly in the form of bribery( in cash or in kind). Corruption distorts the basis for competition that should be based on products and services, thus causing misallocation of resources and slowing economic development.According to Transparency International, which is probably the most influential antic

30、orruption non-government organization (NGO), the correlation between a high level of corruption and low level of economic development is strong. In other words, corruption and poverty go together.The FCPA (Foreign Corrupt Practices Act) can be regarded as an institutional weapon in the global fight

31、against corruption. 道德与腐败道德有助于遏制腐败。腐败通常指以受贿的形式滥用公众赋予的权利来谋取私立。腐败扭曲了产品和服务的竞争基础，导致了资源的不合理配置，减缓了经济的发展速度。根据总部设在德国柏林的，也许是最有影响力的反腐败非政府组织透明国际的调查，较高程度的腐败与较低的经济发展水平之间有着密切的关系。换句话说，腐败伴随着贫困。Norms and ethical challengesHow firms strategically respond to ethical challenges is often driven, at least in part, by nor

32、ms. Four broad strategic responses are 1. reactive, 2. defensive, 3. accommodative, 4. proactive.A Reactive strategy is passive. Even when problems arise, firms do not feel compelled to act, and denial is usually the first line of defense.A defensive strategy focuses on regulatory compliance. In the

33、 absence of regulatory pressures, firms often fight informal pressures coming from the media and activists.An accommodative strategy features emerging organizational norms to accept responsibility and a set of increasingly internalized cognitive beliefs and values toward making certain changes.Final

34、ly, proactive firms anticipate institutional changes and do more than is required. 规范与道德挑战作为一种重要的非正式制度，规范是对某个个体或企业产生影响的任何其他相关行为人的普遍做法。企业怎样战略性地应对道德挑战通常是由规范驱使的，四种广泛应用的战略响应是：1 反应性战略；2 防御性战略 3 适应性战略；4 前摄性战略一个反应性战略是被动的，甚至当问题出现时，公司也没有紧迫感去采取行动，否认通常是第一道防线。一个防御性战略关注的是遵循规章制度，在缺乏规章制度的压力时，企业通常会反击来自媒体和活动家的非正式施压。

35、适应性战略是对所做的某些变革承担责任并认同一系列不断内化的认知信念和价值观采用前摄性战略的企业预期到制度的变化并比要求做的更多。Economic Development: Western Valuesvs. Eastern ValuesBelief in the superiority of Western values has recently been challenged by two sets of Eastern values: Islam and Asian (Confucian).Islamic fundamentalism, which, rightly or wrongly,

36、 argues that Western dominance causes the lackluster economic performance of Muslim countries. Marketing of Western products in these countries is seen as a cultural invasion. Islamic fundamentalists prefer to go “back to the roots” by moving away from Western influence.Asian (Confucian) values are

37、widely viewed as the engine behind the “Asian economic miracle.” Not only do Asians proudly proclaim the validity of “Asian values,” but leading Western scholars also increasingly endorse such a view.经济发展：西方价值观与东方价值观两种东方的价值观伊斯兰教和亚洲（儒学）挑战了这种西方价值观更优的信念。第一个挑战来自伊斯兰激进组织，无论正确与否，伊斯兰激进组织都认为，是西方的支配地位造成了伊斯兰国家

38、毫无光彩的经济表现。西方产品在这些国家的竞争性营销活动被视为文化侵略。第二个挑战来自东亚，100年前，韦伯批评儒学是使亚洲落后的一个首要原因，然而在战后的几十年，当西方经济增长相对停滞时，是信奉儒学的亚洲国家（先是20世纪60年代由日本带领，后由70年代的“四小龙”，再到80年代的中国）纷纷创造了世界上最快速的经济增长并持续了最长的时间。宣称某种文化价值观是经济发展金钥匙的做法可能并不正确。Cultural Change: Convergencevs. DivergenceIn this age of globalization, one side of the debate argues t

39、hat there is a great deal of convergence, especially toward more “modern” Western values such as individualism and consumerism.Another side suggests that Westernization in consumption does not necessarily mean Westernization in values. In a most extreme example, on the night of September 10, 2001, 9

40、/11 terrorists enjoyed some American soft drinks, pizzas, and movies and then went on to kill thousands of Americans the next day.A middle-of-the-road group makes two points. First, with the end of the Cold War, the rise of the Internet, and the ascendance of English, there is no doubt some converge

41、nceat least on the surface and among the youth. Second, deep down, cultural divergence may continue to be the norm.文化变迁：融合与多元在这个全球化的时代，一方的观点认为，存在着很大程度的文化融合，尤其是朝着更为“现代”的西方价值观，如个人主义和消费主义的方向发展。然而另一方的观点认为，消费中的西化并不一定意味着价值观的西化又有折衷派提出了以下两点。首先，在冷战结束后，互联网的兴起以及英语地位的提升均表明了一定程度的文化融合；其次，深入地看，文化的多元性可能影响着规范。因此，也许更好的说法是文化的交叉融合，该论点承认争论双方观点的正确性，并建议，在对世界各国的年轻消费者进行产品和服务营销时，一种更加全球化的方法