《学术论文写作》课件 English Academic Writing 13

1、Chapter 13Literature Review FocusesWhat is a review of the literature?Why do we write literature review?How to write literature review ?Cited sources in a literature review Order of CitationsVerb Tense in Citation1. What is a review of the literature?According to the Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

2、, A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge and or methodological approaches on a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work.A well-structured literature review

3、is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic.文献综述的写法文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文， 它是科学文献的一种。文献综述是反映当前某一领域中某

4、分支学科或重要专题的最新进展、学术见解和建议的。它往往能反映出有关问题的新动态、新趋势、新水平、新原理和新技术等等。“综”是要求对文献资料进行综合分析、归纳整理，使材料更精练明确、更有逻辑层次；“述”就是要求对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述。总之，文献综述是作者对某一方面问题的历史背景、前人工作、争论焦点、研究现状和发展前景等内容进行评论的科学性论文。文献综述的内容要求比较和对照不同作者对某一问题的观点；把持有相同结论的作者放在一起；对方法论部分进行批判；留意观点之间的分歧；突出经典研究；突出研究中的差距；说明你研究与以往研究之间的关系；说明你研究与文献之间的整体关

5、系；总结文献，得出你自己的结论。2. Why do we write literature review?Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep the

6、m up to date with what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research papers investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature

7、 of the field is essential to most research papers. 3. How to write: (1) Four stagesProblem formulation which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? Literature search finding materials relevant to the subject being explored Data evaluation determining which literature ma

8、kes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic Analysis and interpretation discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature (2) Four tasks A literature review must do these things: be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are de

9、veloping synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known identify areas of controversy in the literature formulate questions that need further research (3) Elements comprised in literature review An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the objectives

10、 of the literature review Division of works under review into categories (e.g. those in support of a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative thesis entirely) Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others Conclusions as to which pieces are bes

11、t considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research (4) Strategies for writing the literature reviewFind a focus: not just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one o

12、f them, one at a time. Construct a working thesis statement：argue for a particular perspective on the materialUse evidence：interpretation must be backed up with evidence to show that what you are saying is valid. Be selective： Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the

13、review. Summarize and synthesize： Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as throughout the review. While the literature review presents others ideas, your voice (the writers) should remain front and center. 5. Organizing the body 5.1ThematicThematic reviews o

14、f literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For instance, the sperm whale review could focus on the development of the harpoon for whale hunting. While the study focuses o

15、n one topic, harpoon technology, it will still be organized chronologically. The only difference here between a “chronological” and a “thematic” approach is what is emphasized the most: the development of the harpoon or the harpoon technology.But more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away fr

16、om chronological order. For instance, a thematic review of material on sperm whales might examine how they are portrayed as “evil” in cultural documents. The subsections might include how they are personified, how their proportions are exaggerated, and their behaviors misunderstood. A review organiz

17、ed in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point made.ChronologicalIf your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials above according to when they were published. For instance, first you would talk about the British biolo

18、gical studies of the 18th century, then about Moby Dick, published in 1851, then the book on sperm whales in other art (1968), and finally the biology articles (1980s) and the recent articles on American whaling of the 19th century. But there is relatively no continuity among subjects here. And noti

19、ce that even though the sources on sperm whales in other art and on American whaling are written recently, they are about other subjects/objects that were created much earlier. Thus, the review loses its chronological focus.By publicationOrder your sources by publication chronology, then, only if th

20、e order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on biological studies of sperm whales if the progression revealed a change in dissection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies.By trendA better way to organize the above so

21、urces chronologically is to examine the sources under another trend, such as the history of whaling. Then your review would have subsections according to eras within this period. For instance, the review might examine whaling from pre-1600-1699, 1700-1799, and 1800-1899. Under this method, you would

22、 combine the recent studies on American whaling in the 19th century with Moby Dick itself in the 1800-1899 category, even though the authors wrote a century apart.MethodologicalA methodological approach differs from the two above in that the focusing factor usually does not have to do with the conte

23、nt of the material. Instead, it focuses on the “methods” of the researcher or writer. For the sperm whale project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of whales in American, British, and French art work. Or the review might focus on the economic

24、 impact of whaling on a community. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.Once youve decided on the organizational method for the body of the review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be e

25、asy to figure out. They should arise out of your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue.Sometimes, though, you might need to add add

26、itional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. Put in only what is necessary. Here are a few other sections you might want to consider:Current Situation:Information necessary to

27、understand the topic or focus of the literature review.History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.Methods and/or Standards:The criteria you use

28、d to select the sources in your literature review or the way in which you present your information.For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed articles and journals.6 Presenting source Page 1196.1 describe the source6.2 analyze the work6.2.1 tense in citation6.2.2 te

29、nse in comment or evaluation 6.2.3 tense in expressing attitude59- 28Verb Tense in Citation Verb Tense in Citation Author prominent Information prominent文献综述中动词时态的用法与作者所要强调的信息有关。通常，信息优先用一般现在时；作者优先强调的是一项具体研究，用一般过去时。59- 29Information prominent: Present 1. The Internet Protocol (IP), however, is based

30、on best effort and lacks the ability to provide some level of Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees 1. 2. When students perceive that their course grades, course procedures, or instructors communication are unfair, they report a greater likelihood of indirect aggression against their instructors (Chor

31、y, 2002; Thompson, 2005a; 2005b), resisting their instructors requests (Houser & Lee, 2006), and giving their instructors lower teaching evaluations (Tata, 1999). 59- 30Author prominent: Past 1. Aleamoni (1981) noted that opinions about student evaluations vary, from reliable, valid and useful to un

32、reliable, invalid, and useless. 2. Schaller (1992) observed that teachers who engaged in more verbal sensitivity (relational competence), immediacy, and negative humor, all of which constitute a relational teaching approach, experienced more satisfaction with their students and work.59- 31Author pro

33、minent: present perfect (1)当论文作者强调几位作者的研究成果或研究概况时，常常用现在完成时。1. Researchers such as Braskamp, Brandenburg and Ory (1984), Aleamoni (1987) and Seldin (1999) have developed guidelines to help conduct teaching evaluations more successfully.59- 32Author prominent: present perfect (2) 2. Although recent re

34、search has provided insights into the composing processes of second language writers (Raimes, 1985; Zamel, 1983, 1985; see Krapels, 1990, for a survey of L2 process studies) and into the discourse structures of L2 texts (Connor & Kaplan, 1987), questions still remain regarding the extent to which la

35、nguage proficiency interacts with and influences writing skill. 3. Slemenda, et al. (1997) have shown that a weak quadriceps muscle is associated with a higher risk for knee osteoarthritis, suggesting indirect evidence that inactivity may be harmful to the joint.59- 33Author prominent: Attitude and

36、tense (1)Note: 论文作者对所引用的前人研究成果的态度也影响动词时态的选择。如果过去的成果非常重要，或者与作者正在从事的研究工作直接相关，论文作者就会选择动词的现在时，否则，就用过去时。 1. Schmidt (1998) identified three types of microcomputer use in classrooms: the object of a course, a support tool, and a means of providing instruction. Foster and Kleene (1998) cite four uses of mi

37、crocomputers in vocational agriculture: drill and practice, tutorial, simulation and problem solving.59- 34Author prominent: Attitude and tense (2) 2. Similarly, a survey of L2 students taking university courses found that they identified vocabulary as a major factor that held them back in academic

38、writing tasks (Leki & Carson, 1994). Laufer (1986) argues that if fluency is understood as “the ability to convey a message with ease and comprehensibility” (p.72), then vocabulary adequacy and accuracy matter more than grammatical correctness.59- 35 Research orientationVerb Tense in Other Parts of

39、Introduction Research Purpose Value Report orientation Modal auxiliaries 介绍研究目的时，作者可以将着眼点放在研究工作本身（Research Orientation) 并将其作为主语；作者也可以将着眼点放在论文本身（Paper Orientation）并将其作为主语。通常，前者用一般过去时；后者用一般现在时或将来时。59- 36Research PurposeResearch orientation: Past1. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent

40、to which measures of lexical richness, as well as measures of lexical error, are related to the quality of written compositions of L2 learners from mixed language backgrounds at four levels of an intensive English program. 59- 37Research PurposeReport orientation: Present; Future 1. This paper prese

41、nts the results of a survey conducted in Zhejiang province, China, to determine the perceived impact of Chinas accession to the WTO on business professionals. 2. In this paper, we propose an alternative distributed approach, where the local admission decisions are made independently at the edge rout

42、ers of each domain. 3. This paper will discuss some demographic factors which might be important for queen rearing in African honeybee colonies. 7Citation in a literature reviewWe cannot imagine one can fulfill the writing of a literature review without referring to any bibliography. In other words,

43、 to make a literature review more convincing, the writer has to have some cited sources in his or her literature review.7.1forms of citation,7.2 types of citation, 7.3 functions of citation7.4 citation composing process.7.4.1 gist and list7.4.2 TIA7.4.3 Dialogue7.5 Comment of cited works7.6 problems

44、 in citationHow to quoteAs for the writing of a literature review for his or her graduation paper, one needs to do the following:A. Cite and quote when necessaryB. Use in-text citations(夹注)C. Number of cited sources (at least 20)D. All cited sources must be listed in the bibliography.注意：正文中所采用的夹注要与参

45、考文献严格一一对应。所有文中夹注必须能在Bibliography中找到与其对应的文献；同样，所有在Bibliography中所列举的都是文中夹注引用涉及的文献，不得罗列同正文没有直接关系的文献。英文(in-text citations)夹注可以采用以下几种形式： 间接引用 （citations）A.如果引用只涉及一个作家的某本专著或文章，而作家的名字在自己的行文中没有出现, 将该作家的姓氏和出版的时间用括弧括起来，放在句子结尾，注意该括弧算作句子的一部分，标点符号应放在括弧之后。例: It has been argued that teachers role is to provide the

46、 students with optimal conditions which can facilitate learning so that students can achieve similar results (Bloom, 1976).B.如果引用所涉及到的作家的名字已经出现在行文中, 只需要在名字后面加上括弧, 填入出版时间即可。例：Gould (1988) attributes Darwins success to his gift for making the appropriate metaphor. C. 如果引用涉及到的作家和著作的出版时间在行文中已出现，那就不再需要单独

47、的夹注了。例：In a 1988 article, Gould explores some of Darwins most effective metaphors.D.如涉及到的作者超过两人，少于六人，第一次加夹注时，写出所有作者的姓氏，以后每次引用，只需写出第一作者的姓氏，其后加上“et al”即可。例：Scientists have isolated a gene connected to circadian rhythms in plants (Millar, Straum, Chory, Chua, & Kay, 1995:1163) . . . . They identified t

48、he mutations that activated light-dependent pathways (Millar, et al., 1995:1165)E.如果引用涉及到的著作由六位以上的作者合著，加注时只需写出第一作者的姓氏，其后加上“et al.”即可。例：Naiman et al. （1978）found a similar relationship, although I this case effort on the part of the learners was also associated with instrumental motivation (subsequen

49、t citations) (Ellis, 1954: 512).F .如果涉及到同一作者的不同著作，在括弧中按出版时间分开；如果是同一作者在同一年的不同著作，在出版时间后用小写英文字母区别。例：（Halliday, 1978, 1992）；（Halliday, 1967a, 1967b） 直接引用（quotations）A. 如果原著作者的姓氏在自己的行文中没有提到，那你需要把作者的姓氏，出版时间和引文出自的页码用括弧括起，放在引文的后面, 引文用双引号。如果引文中原来就有引号，将有引号的部分改为单引号。例： Conceptually, motivation is seen as “the c

50、ombination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitude toward learning language” (Gardner, 1985:10). Based on different findings, it is proposed that “the type of motivation and its strength are likely to be determined less by some generalized principle

51、 and more by who learns what in what milieu” (Laser-Freeman & Long, 1993: 174).B.如果你自己的行文中已经提到原著作者的姓氏，则只需在引文的后面用括弧加上页码即可。例：Gardner (1985:10) sees motivation as “the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitude toward learning language” .C. 如果

52、直接引用所涉及到的作者有多位，除遵守以上A，B两条外，其他规则与间接引用相同。D.直接引文的字数如少于40英文单词或4行，引文直接放到段落中。否则引文单独成段，段落用“齐头式”，整个段落缩行5个空格 (如果引文还有第二段，整个段落还要再缩行5个空格)，引文不需引号。如引文中已有引号，保留原来的引号。For ExampleRaymond William explains that the word career has all but lost its original meaning. Career is now so regularly used to describe a persons

53、progress in life, or, by derivation from this, his profession or vocation that it is difficult to remember, in the same context, its original meaning of a recourse and a gallopthough in some contexts, as in the phrase “Careering about,” these survive. Career appeared in English . . .E.引用诗歌, 如少于两行, 直

54、接引入行文中，两行间用斜线分开, 行首的大写应保持,引用部分加双引号; 如超过两行, 则按直接引用规则D 处理。例：In his “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty,” Shelly personifies the immaterial, spiritual world: “The awful shadow of some unseen Power / Floats though unseen among us.” In “Song of Myself,” Walt Whitman uses the dictation and rhythm of natural spee

55、ch.A child said What is the grass? fetching it to me with full hands;How could I answer the child? I do not know what it is any more than he.I guess it must be the flag of my disposition, out hopeful green stuff woven. F. 引用小说如果论文是有关小说评论，因一般都需从同一小说中反复引用，为方便起见，在第一次引用后用圆括弧注明页码，在加一个尾注，用上标标出。尾注说明格式如下例。以

56、后每次从该小说引用后， 只注明页码即可, 毋需再加尾注。例：In six months time, he was tramped into marriage with her, though “he had no respect for her.” (p. 40)引用多位作者写作的同一文献MLA（二至三位作者） Among intentional spoonerisms, the “punlike metathesis of distinctive features may serve to weld together words etymologically unrelated but cl

57、ose in their sound and meaning” (Jakobson and Waugh 304).（如果有三位作者，在括号夹注中应用逗号分隔他们的姓氏，如：(Alton, Davies, and Rice 56)。MLA（三位以上的作者）：The study was extended for two years, and only after results were reviewed by an independent panel did the researchers publish their findings (Blaine et al. 35).APA（两位作者）：R

58、esearch (Yamada & Matsuura, 1982) reports the poor performance of advanced English learners who could use English articles correctly only in 70 percent of the cases. 注意两种规范的括号夹注中分别使用“and”与“&”。APA（三至五位作者）第一次引用：According to educational psychologists, raising children is a responsibility of the entire

59、community (Franklin, Childs, & Smith, 1995). 以后的引用： To be successful, “communities must be willing to take this responsibility” (Franklin et al., 1995, p. 135).APA（五位以上的作者）：Patterns of byzantine intrigue have long plagued the internal politics of community college administration in Texas (Douglas et

60、 al., 2003) 1.11.4.5 引用同样姓氏的不同作者 假若两个或两个以上的作者有同样的姓氏，则括号夹注中应同时使用他们名字的首字母，如： MLA：Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46).APA：Well-established SLA re