(部分)语言学资料

1、PAGE PAGE 28Chapter5名词解释Predication答案:Predication refers to the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence; it consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about

2、an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Selectional restrictions答案:Selectional restrictions refer to the constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Naming theory答案:The naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, is one of the o

3、ldest notions concerning meaning, according to which, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for, and words are just names or labels for things.Conceptualism答案:Conceptualism holds the view that relates words and thing

4、s through the mediation of concepts of the mind.Behaviorism答案:Behaviorism holds the view that the meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.Contextualism答案:Contextualism holds the view that meaning should be studied in te

5、rms of situation, use, context elements closely linked with language behaviour.Grammaticality答案:Grammaticality refers to the grammatical meaning of a linguistic unit (such as a sentence), which is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.问答题What is componential analysis?答案:It is a way propo

6、sed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning into semantic features, using such labels as +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE, and so on. Componential analysis makes it possible to show how the words analyzed are related in meaning.What is predication analysis?答案:It is a way proposed by th

7、e British linguist G. Leech to analyze sentence meaning, by which the basic unit of a sentence called predication consists of argument(s) and predicate, e.g. The predication of “Tom is smoking.” is: TOM (SMOKE).What is the difference between sense and reference?答案:The difference between sense and re

8、ference is that sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, whereas reference deals with what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.What is sense?答案:Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the feature

9、s of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in, like the definition of dog as a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.What is reference?答案:Reference means wha

10、t a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. For instance, if we say The dog is barking, we must be talking about a certain dog in the situation; here, dog refers to a dog known to

11、 both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word dog in this particular situation.综合分析题Analyze Speaker As presupposition in the following dialogue and its possible effect on Speaker B:A: (The first time to invite B to see a film) Hello, Mary. This is John speaking.B: Hi, John.A: W

12、hich film do you would like to see with me tonight, Titanic, or Love Me Again?B: Well, .答案:Speaker As presupposition in the dialogue is Mary has promised to see a film with John that evening. He made this supposition probably because he was afraid of Marys refusal to go to see the movie with him. Th

13、erefore, he asked Mary to make a choice out of two films instead. The possible effect is that if Mary was careless, or she liked him very much, or she was in love with him, then she might accept his assumption and went with him to enjoy the film. If she was very careful, or she did not like him, the

14、n the presupposition might have little effect on her, and she might well decline his invitation.Chapter6名词解释Constatives答案:Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and thus verifiable (The dress is red).Expressives答案:Expressives are the speakers attempts to express his feelings or at

15、titude towards an existing state, e.g. Im sorry for being late., Its very kind of you to give me advice.Performatives 答案:Performatives are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable (I name this ship Elizabeth).Directives答案:Directives are the speakers attempts to

16、get the hearer to do something, e.g. Turn on the light!, Youd better read the book., Your money or your life!Illocutionary act答案:Illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention, the act performed in saying something.Declarations答案:Declarations are the speakers attempts to bring abo

17、ut immediate changes by saying (declaring) something, e.g. I now declare the meeting open., I fire you!Utterance meaning答案:Utterance meaning is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or in a context.Locutionary act答案:Locutionary act is the act of

18、uttering words, phrases, clauses, the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Sentence meaning答案:Sentence meaning is the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.Commissives答案:Commissives are the speakers attempts to commit the sp

19、eaker himself to some future course of action, e.g. I promise to come., I will call you tomorrow morning without fail.Representatives答案:Representatives are the speakers attempts to state or describe, say what the speaker believes to be true, e.g. I have never been to England before., The man is a ri

20、ch man.perlocutionary act 答案:Perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something, the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.问答题what is the relationship between pragmatics and semantics?答案:The relation betwe

21、en pragmatics and semantics is that both are linguistic studies of meaning. But they differ in that semantics traditionally studies meanings of words, meanings of sentences in isolation from language use, whereas pragmatics studies meanings in the context of language use.What is conversational impli

22、cature?答案:Conversational implicature is a nonconventional implicature based on an addressees assumption that the speaker is following the conversational maxims or at least the cooperative principle. It occurs when any of the four maxims is violated.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning diff

23、erent from each other?答案:Sentence meaning is the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Whereas utterance meaning is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or in a context. So the difference between sentence m

24、eaning and utterance meaning is that the former is abstract and decontextualized, while the latter is concrete and context-dependent.How does a sentence differ from an utterance?答案:A sentence and an utterance differ in that a sentence is a grammatical and self-contained unit in isolation from contex

25、t, whereas utterance is something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose.What is context?答案:Context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer (e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, k

26、nowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other).综合分析题1. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the Cooperative Principle:A: Where is John?B: He must be somewhere in the city.答案:The Coop

27、erative Principle refers to the general principle that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, or it would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occu

28、rs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. It comprises four maxims: of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. The violation of any of these maxims results in what Grice terms conversational implicature. In the dialogue given, Speaker B violates the maxi

29、m of quality. One possible interpretation is that he does not want to let A know about John.2. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the speech act theory:Father said to Son: You got up late again today.答案:According to Austins new model of speech acts, a speaking might be performing three acts

30、simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.In this example, Fathers words might mean his performing three acts at the same time: Locutionary act: uttering of the sentence “You got up late again today ”. Illocutionary act: asking Son to change his bad habi

31、t of getting up late. Perlocutionary act: Sons actual act of changing, or sticking to, his bad habit of getting up late in the coming days.3. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the Cooperative Principle:A: Where is John?B: In the t-o-i-l-e-t.答案:The Cooperative Principle refers to the general

32、 principle that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, or it would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction

33、 of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. It comprises four maxims: of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. The violation of any of these maxims results in what Grice terms conversational implicature. In the dialogue given, Speaker B violates the maxim of manner. One possible interpretatio

34、n is that he does not want to speak directly because the word toilet will invite unpleasant association.4.Analyze the following dialogue by applying the Cooperative Principle:A: Where is John?B: Its going to rain.答案:The Cooperative Principle refers to the general principle that in making conversatio

35、n, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, or it would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you ar

36、e engaged. It comprises four maxims: of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. The violation of any of these maxims results in what Grice terms conversational implicature. In the dialogue given, Speaker B violates the maxim of relation. One possible interpretation is that he wants to avoid the top

37、ic of “John”.5. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the Cooperative Principle:A: Where is John?B: I dont know. Perhaps Kate knows.答案:The Cooperative Principle refers to the general principle that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, or it would b

38、e impossible for them to carry on the talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. It comprises four maxims: of quantity, quality, relation, and man

39、ner. The violation of any of these maxims results in what Grice terms conversational implicature. In the dialogue given, Speaker B violates the maxim of quantity. One possible interpretation is that he is a kind man.6. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the speech act theory:Student A said t

40、o his friend beside him: I have no money in my card for lunch today.答案:According to Austins new model of speech acts, a speaking might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.In this example, Student As words might mean his per

41、forming three acts at the same time: Locutionary act: uttering of the sentence “I have no money in my card for lunch today. ” Illocutionary act: Student As asking his friend to lend him some money to have lunch. Perlocutionary act: Student As friends lending (or declining to lend) him some money.Cha

42、pter 7名词解释Borrowing答案:Borrowing refers to the use of words in a language from another language of a different culture, e.g. in English, bonusLatin; dinnerFrench.Functional shift答案:Functional shift refers to the phenomenon of words shifting from one part of speech to another without the addition of a

43、ffixes, e.g. shoulder (n.)shoulder (v.).Acronym 答案:An acronym is a word derived from the initials of several words, e.g. ITinformation technology; WTOWorld Trade Organization.Blending答案:Blending refers to the formation of a word by combining parts of other words, e.g. smogsmoke + fog; motelmotor + h

44、otel.Back-formation答案:Back-formation refers to the formation of a word by subtracting an affix thought to be part of the old word, e.g. editeditor; begbeggar.Clipping答案:Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g. gymgymnasium, mikemicrophone.问答题1,What is widening of lexical

45、meaning?答案:The meaning of a word may change through time. The widening of lexical meaning is one kind of change in the meaning of a word. This refers to the case when the meaning of a word becomes broader, that word means everything it used to mean, and then more. Take the word tail for instance. It

46、 once referred to the tail of a horse. But now it is used to mean the tail of any animal.What is narrowing of lexical meaning?答案:This refers to the case that in the course of several generations, semantic change has narrowed the meaning of a word to what it is in Modern English. Take the word girl f

47、or instance. It once meant young person of either sex but now means young people of female sex.2,What are causes of language change?答案:Language change can be attributed to a variety of factors. Some language changes may be easy to explain, but others may be difficult to account for. For instance, it

48、 is clear to us that the rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words (such as telecom, fax). In addition, social and political changes and political needs have supplied the English vocabulary with a great quantity of new words and expressions (such as hot li

49、ne, shuttle diplomacy). What is more, as more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles (such as chairperson, police officer) have been created. Furthermore, the way acquire the language also provides a basic cause of change. Still another source of c

50、hange which can be regarded as economy of memory results in grammar simplification (such as agendumagenda/agendums). It is true that there is no single cause of language change. When we account for language change, we may find it quite a complicated phenomenon.3,What are the recent trends of the Eng

51、lish language?答案:The recent trends of the English language include moving towards greater informality, the influence of American English, and the influence of science and technology.Chapter 8名词解释Macro-sociolinguistics答案:Macro-sociolinguistics refers to the study of society as a whole, and of how lan

52、guage functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations, i.e., a birds-eye view of the languages used in society.Bilingualism答案:Bilingualism refers to the case in which two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the

53、 situation changes.Speech variety答案:Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. It is also termed language variety.Idiolect答案:Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, a

54、nd age variations.Register答案:According to M.A. K. Halliday, register refers to the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.Ethnic dialect答案:Ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privile

55、ged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.Speech community答案:Speech community refers to the social group that is singled out for any special study. For general linguistics, it is a group of people who form a community and share the

56、 same language or a particular variety of a language.Regional dialect答案:Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.Diglossia答案:Diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the commu

57、nity, with each having a definite role to play.Pidgin答案:A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.Micro-sociolinguistics答案:Micro-sociolinguistics refers to the study of society

58、from the point of view of an individual member within it, or a worms-eye view of language in use.Linguistic repertoire答案:Linguistic repertoire refers to the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual.Creole答案:A Creole is a pidgin which has become the primary language of a speech com

59、munity and which is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language.Sociolect答案:Sociolect refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.问答题1,What is standard dialect?答案:Standard dialect is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a lan

60、guage. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions. It is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a spe