语言学重点概念

1、ChaPter One Introduction一、定义语言学 Lingui st icsLingUiStics i S genera I Iy defined as the SCientific StUdy Of I anguage普通语言学 GeneraI LinguisticsThe StUdy Of Ianguage as a WhOIe i S Often CalIed Genera IIi ngu i Stics.3语言IanguageLanguage i S a SyStem Of arb i trary VOCa I SymbO IS USed for human COmmUn

2、iCat ion.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。识别特征 DeS i gn FeatUreSIt refers to the def ining POPerties Of human Ianguage that diStinguish it from any animal SyStem Of COmmUniCation.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性 特征。Arbitrar iness 任意性PrOdUCtiVity 多产性DUa I ity双重性DiSPI acement 移位性CUItUral transmission 文化传递(1 )arb it

3、 rar i nessThere i S no IOgiCal COnnection betWeen meanings and SOUndSthe arb itrary natUre Of Ianguage is a Sign of SOPh i Sticat ion and it makes it POSSibIe for Ianguage to have an Unl imited SOUrCe Of express i OnS(2)PrOdUCt i v ityAnimalS are quite I imited in the messages they are abIe to Send

4、DUa Ii tyLanguage i S a SyStern, Wh i Ch COnS i Sts Of two SetS Of Struetures , Or two I eve ISDi SPI aceme ntLanguage Can be USed to refer to COrTteXtS removed from the immediate SitUatiOnS Of the speaker.Cu ItUra I tranSmiSS iOnHUlTlan CaPaCity for Ianguage has a genetic basis, but We have to be t

5、aught and I earned the details Of any Ianguage SyStem. th i S ShOWed that Ianguage iS CUltUral Iy transmitted. not by instinct, animals are born VVith the CaPaCity to PrOdUCe the Set Of CalIS PeCUIiar to thei r species.语言能力COmPetenCeCOmPetence i S the ideaI USer, S knoWledge Of the ruIes Of hi S I a

6、nguage言运用 PerfOrmancePerfOrmanCe iS the actual reaIiZation Of thiS knowledge in Ii ngu i st i c COmmUn i Cat i on.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。历时语言学 Di achroniC I i nguist icsThe StUdy Of Ianguage Change through time, a diachronic StUdy Of Ianguage i S a histori cal StUdy, WhiCh StUd i es the h i Stori cal

7、deveI OPment Of Ianguage OVer a Per i Od Of time.共时语言学 SynChrOniCa I I inguist icsThe StUdy Of a given Ianguage at a given time.语言 IangueThe abstract I ingu i Stic SyStem Shared by a I I members Of a SPeeCh COmmUn i ty.言语 ParOI eThe reaIiZation Of Iangue in actual USe.规定性 PreSCr i pt i veIt aims to

8、Iay down ruIes for V COrreCt behavior, to teI I PeOPIe What they ShOUld Say and What ShOU Id not say.描述性 DeSCr i pt i veA Iingui Stic StUdy descr ibes and ana Iyzes the Ianguage PeOP Ie actuaI Iy use.二、知识点i S not an iso I a ted PhenOmenO n, it S a SOC i a I activity Carr i ed OUt in a Certain SOCia

9、I envi ronment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社 会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：瑞士语言学家SaUSSUre SaUSSUre:LangUe和ParOIe的区别IingUiS t美国语言学家i n1950 针 对 SaUSSUre, S I angue&paro I e 提 出 COInPetenCe 和 PerfOrmanCe曾经对语言槪念下过定义的语言学家SaP i r Ian guage i S a PUre I y human and non- instinctive met hod Of COmmUn

10、i Ca tion ideas, emotionsan d des i res by means Of VOI Un tar i Iy PrOdUCed SymbO Is.HaI I Ianguage iS the institution Whereby humans COmmUnicate and interact With each Other by means Of habitually USed Ora Haud i tory arb i trary SymbOls.ChOmSkyfrom now On I Wi I I COnSider Ianguage to be a Set Of

11、Sentences, each finite in Iength and COnStrueted OUt Of a finite Set Of el ernents. LingUi St Char I es HOCkett 美国语言学家 Char I es HOCkett提出了语言的识别特征des ign featuresWOrd , Ianguage PreCeded by the zero-artiCIe , it implies that Ii ngu i Stics StUdieS not any PartiCUI ar Ianguage.LangUage 一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不

12、只研究一种特定的语言Order to d i SCOVer the natUre Of the UnderIying Ianguage SyStem , What the Iingui Sts has to do fi rst if to StUdy Ianguage facts.iS a COmPI iCated entity with muItiPIe Iayers and facts, SO its hard I y POSS i b I e for the I in gu i S tics to dea I With it a I I at once. 判断题drew the atte

13、ntion Of the IinguiSts Were the SOUndS USed in I anguages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题are major branches Of I inguiStics What does each StUdyPhOnetics it S defined as the StUdy Of the PhOniC mediUm Of Ian guage, it S COn Cer ned With a I I the SOUndS that OCCUr i n the WOr Id, S Ianguages.PhOnoIogythe St

14、Udy Of SOUndS SyStemsthe i nventory OfdiStinetive SOUndS that OCCUr in a Ianguage and the Patterns into WhiCh they fa I I.MOrPhOIOgy It S a branch Of a grammar WhiCh StUdies the internaI Strueture Of WOrdS and the rules by WhiCh WOrdS are formed.SyntaXits a SUbf i e I d Of I i ngu i st i cs that StU

15、d i es theSentence Strueture Of a IanguageSemanticsIt S SimPIy defined as the StUdy Of meaning inabstract ion.Pragmaticsthe StUdy Of meaning in COnteXt Of words,SOC i oIi ngu i St i CSthe StUdy Of I anguage With reference to SOC i ety.PSyChOIinguiSticsthe StUdy Of Ianguage With reference to theWOrki

16、ng Of the mind.APPIi ed Ii ngu i Sticsthe appl ication Of Iingu i Stic PrinCiPIeSand theor i es to IangUage teach i ng and I earning.do We Say Ianguage iS arbitraryLanguage iS arbitrary in the SenSe that there iS no intr insic COnneCtion betWeen the SOUndS that PeOP I e USe and the Objects to WhiCh

17、these SOUndS referThe fact that d i fferent Ianguages have d i fferent WOrdS for the SalTle Object is a good i I I ustration Of the arbi trary natUre Of Ianguage, it SOnly OUr tacit agreement Of Utterance and COnCePt at WOrk and not any innate re I a tion Sh i P bound UP in the Utt era nce.A typical

18、 examp I e to i I IUStrate the 4arb i trar iness Of I anguage iS a rose by any Other name WOUId SmeI I as SWeet 3. What makes modern IingUiStics different from traditional grammarMOdern Ii ngu i Stics i S descr i Ptive, its inVeStigat ions are based On authentiC and mainly SPOken Ianguage date.现代语言学

19、是描述 性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。trad i t i Ona I grammariS PreSCr iPtive. it is based or high,Wr itten Ianguage.传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。modern I inguiSticsmainly SynChrOnic Or diachronic WhyMOdern Ii ngu i st i cs i S ma i nIy SynChrOn i c, focus i ng On the PreSent一day I anguage. Unl ess the Var i OUS Sta

20、teS Of a Ianguage are SUCCeSSfUI Iy StUdied, it Wi I I not be POSSible to descr ibe Ianguage from a diachronic POint Of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状 态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。enjoys PriOrity in modern Iingui Stics, SPeeCh Or Wr itingsSPeeCh enjoys for the fol IOWing reasons:(1 )Speech PreC

21、edeS Wr iting in terms Of evoIution.A Iarge amount Of COmmUnication is Carr ied OUt in SPeeCh than in Wr iting.SPeeCh i S the form in WhiCh i nfants acqui re the i r native Ianguagei S SaUSSUre, S d i S ti net ion bet Wee n IangUe and ParO I e Simi Iar to ChOmSkyr SBOth SaUSSUre and ChOmSky make the

22、 d i Stinet ion betWeen the abstract Ianguage SyStem and the actual USe Of Ianguage. thei r PUrPOSe iS to Single OUt the Ianguage SyStem for Ser iOUS StUdyTWO IinguiSts idea differ in that SaUSSUre took a SOCiOIOgiCa I V i ew Of Ianguage, ChOmSky I OOkS at Ianguage from a PSyChOlOgiCal POint Of View

23、, COmPetence iS a PrOPerty Of the mind Of each i nd i v i duaId i Stinet ion between Iangue and ParO Ie(I)Ia ngue i S abs trac t, re I a ti Ve I y St ab I e (2)ParOle i S COnCre te, Var ies from PerSOn to person, from SitUatiOn to SitUation.1/ What is Iinguistics什么是语言学LingUiStics i S genera I Iy def

24、 ined as the SCientific StUdy Of Ianguage It StUdies not any PartiCUIar Ianguage, but IangUageS i n genera I.2/ The SCOPe Of IinguiStics语言学的研究范畴The StUdy Of Ianguage as a WhOIe i S Often CalIed genera I I inguist ics.（普通语言学）The StUdy Of SOUnds, WhiCh are USed in I inguiStic COmmUniCatiOn, iS Cal Ied

25、 PhOnetics.（语音学）The StUdy Of how SOUndS are PUt together and USed i n COmmUnication iS Cal Ied phonology.（音系学）The StUdy Of the Way in WhiCh morphemes are arranged to form WOrdS iS Cal Ied morphology.（形态学）The StUdy Of how morphemes and WOrdS are COmb i ned to form SentenCeS i S Cal Ied Syntax （句法学）Th

26、e StUdy Of meaning in Ianguage iS Cal Ied Semantics. （语义学）The StUdy Of meaning in COnteXt Of USe is ca I Ied Pragmatics.（语用学）The StUdy Of Ianguage With reference to SOCiety is CalIed SOCiO-I inguistics.（社会语言学）The StUdy Of Ianguage With reference to the WOrking Of mind iS Cal Ied PSyChO-1 inguiSt ics

27、.（心理语言学）The StUdy Of appI iCations （as the recovery Of SPeeCh abi I ity） is gen era I I y known as app I i ed I i ngu i S ti cs. （应 用语言学） BUt in a narrow Sense, appIied IinguiStics refers to the appI ication Of I inguist ic PrinCiPleS and theor ies to Ianguage teaching and I earn i ng, espec i a I I

28、 y the teach i ng Of fore i gn and SeCOnd I anguageOt her re I a ted bra nches i nc I Ude ant hropo IOgiCal I i ngu i S ti cs, （人 类语言学）neuroIOgiCal Ii ngui St ics,（神经语言学）mathemat ica I I i ngu i S ti cs, （数字语言学）an d COmPU tational I i ngu is tics. （计 算机语言学）3/ SOme important d i Stinet ions in IingUi

29、Stics语言学研究中的几对基本槪念PreSCriPtiVe and descr ipt i ve 规定与描写If a I ingui Stic StUdy descr i bes and ana Iyzes the Ianguage PeOP Ie actual Iy use, it is said to be descr iPtive, if it aims to Iay down ruIes to teI I PeOP Ie What they ShOU Id Say and What they ShOU Id not say, it is said to be PreSCr iPtiv

30、e.MOdern I inguiStiCS differs from traditional grammar Traditional grammar i S PreSCr i Ptive wh i I e modern Iingui Stics i S descr i Ptive. The task Of I inguiSts iS SUPPOSed to descr ibe the Ianguage PeOPIe actually use, Whether it is UCOrreCt” Or not.SynChrOniC and diachronic 共时和历时The descr i pt

31、 i on of a I anguage at SOme POirIt i n t ime i S a SynChrOn i C Study; the descr iption Of a Ianguage as it ChangeS through time iS a diachronic study. In modern IingUiStics, SynChrOniC StUdy i S more important.SPeeCh and Writing 口头语与书面语SPeeCh and Wr i ting are the two ma jor med i a Of COrTITl Un

32、ica ti on. MOdern 丨 i ngu i st i cs regards the SPOken form Of I anguage as Pr i mary, but not the Wr itten form ReaSOns are: SPeeCh PreCedeS Wr iting; 2 There are StiIl many IangUageS that have OnIy the SPOken form; 3. In terms Of function, the SPOken Ianguage iS USed for a Wider range Of PUrPOSeS

33、than the Wr itten, and Carr ies a Iarger IOad Of COmmUn i Cation than the Wr itten.Langue and ParOle 语言和言语The SWi SS Iingu i St F de SaUSSUre made the d i Stinet ion betWeen Iangue and ParOle ear Iy 20th CenturyLan gue refers to the abs trac t I in gui s tic SyS tem Shared by a I I the members Of a

34、SPeeCh COmmunity, and ParO Ie refers to the rea I i Za ti OnOf Ian gue in actual USe SaUSSUre made the dis ti net ion in Order to Single OUt One aspect Of Ianguage for Ser ious StUdy. He be Ii eves Wha t IingUiSts ShOUld do is to abstract Iangue from ParO I e, to d i SCOVer the regular i ties gover

35、ning the actual USe Of Ianguage and make them the SUbjeCts Of StUdy Of Ii ngui stics.COmPetenCe and PerfOrmanCe语言能力和语言运用PrOPOSed by Amer ican Iingui St N. ChOmSky in the Iate 1950 sHe def ines COmPetence as the i dea I USer , S knoWledge Of the ru I es OfhiS Ianguage, and PerfOrmance the actual reaI

36、iZation Of thiS knowledge in IingUiStic COmmUniCat ion. He be Ii eves the task Of the IinguiSts iS to diSCOVer and SPeCify the Ianguage ruIesChaPter TWO PhOnoIOgy一、定义1宽式音标 BrOad transcr i pt ionThe transcr iPtion Of SPeeCh SOUndS With Ietter SymbOIS only.窄式音标 NarrOW transcr i pt i onThe tranSCr i Pt

37、ion Of SPeeCh SOUnd With Ietters SymbO IS and the diacr itics.清音 VOiCeleSSWhen the VOCa I COrdS are drawn Wide apart , Ietting a i r go through Without CaUSing Vibrat iOn , the SOUndS PrOdUCed in SUCh a COnditiOn are CalIed VOiCeleSS SOUndS 4浊音 VOiCingSOUndS PrOdUCed WhiIe the VOCaI COrdS are Vibrat

38、ing are CalIedVOiCed SOUndS元音 VOWelThe SOUndS in the PrOdUC tion Of WhiCh no arti CUI a tors COme Very CI OSe together and the a i r Stream PaSSeS through the VOCa I tract WithOUt ObStruetion are CalIed VOWeIS辅音 COnSOnantsThe SOUndS in the PrOdUCtion Of WhiCh there iS an ObStruetion Of the a i r Str

39、eam at SOme POint Of the VOCa I tract are Cal Ied consonants.音位 PhOnerneit，S a COlIeCtion Of diStinctiverepresenta I IOPhOneSa PhOnenle in differentOf that PhOnemeThe basic Unit in PhOnOlogy,PhOnetiC features音位变体Al IOPhOneSDifferent PhOneS WhiCh Can enV i ronments are CalIed the音素 PhOnenecessar iIy

40、diStinguish SPeak ing a Ianguage.it doesnotA PhOnetic Un i t Or Segment meaning, it S a SPeeCh SoUnd We USe Whenevery Way except for PI ace i n the Strings,10最小对立对Minimal Pa i rWhen two di fferent forms are identiCa I inOne SOUnd Segment WhiCh OCCUrS i n the Same the two WOrdS are Sa i d to form a m

41、ini ma I Pa i r.11 超切分特征 SUPraSegmenta IThe PhOnemi c features that OCCUr above the I eve I Of the Segment are CalIed SUPraSegmental features the ma i n SUPraSegmental features inCIUde Stress ,intonation and tone.12互补分布 COmPlementary diStributionP35TWO a I IOPhOneS Of the Same PhOneme are Sa i d to

42、be i n COmP I eme nt ary d i Str ibution.13语言的语音媒介 PhOniC med iUm Of I anguageThe Iimited range Of SOUndS WhiCh are meaningful in human COmmUniCation and are Of interest to IingUiStic StUdies are the PhOniC med i Um Of Ianguage.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声 音是语音媒介。14.爆破音StOPSWhen a ObStruetion Crea

43、ted by the SPeeCh Organs iS total Or COmP I e te, the SPeeCh SOUnd PrOdUCed VVith the ObS true tion re I eased and the a i r PaSS i ng OUt aga i n i S CaIIed a StOP Or a PIOSiVethey areb p t d k g二、知识点resu Iting from CarefU I i nves ti gat ions ShOW that t here have bee n over5t OOOlanguages in the

44、WOr Id, about two thi rds Of WhiCh have not had Wr i tten form2. Of the two med i a of I anguage, SPeeCh i S more bas i C than Wri t i ng.组成(1 )Ar ti CUI a tory PhOnetiCS 发音 语音学 I OngeS t est ab I i shed, mostly developedAUd i toryPhOnet i CS 听觉语音学ACOUSt i CPhOnet i CS 声学语音学/Organs Of SPeeChPharynge

45、a I CaVity -咽腔Ora I -口腔 greatest SOUrCe Of mod i f i cation Of a i rStream found hereNaSa I -鼻腔tongue iS the most flexible, responsibIe for more Var ieties Of arti CUI a tion t han any Ot her, the ext reme back Of the ton gue Can be ra i Sed toWardS the UVUI a and a SPeeCh SOUnd Can be thus PrOdUCed

46、 as iS USed in ArabiC and French.between the back Of the tongue and the VeIar area resuItS in the PrOnUnCiation Ofk andg,the narrowing Of SPaCe betWeen the hard Pa I a te and the fro nt Of the ton gue I eads to the SOUnd j ;the ObStruet i On Created betWeen the t i P Of the tongue and the a I VeO Ia

47、r r i dge resuIts i n the SOUnds tandd.COnSOnants: m / n / 9. A PhOne iS a PhOnetic Unit Or Segmentru I es例子I f three COnSOnantS ShOU Id CIUSter together at the beg inning Of a word, the COmbination ShOUId Obey the fol IOWing three rules:the fi rst PhOneme must be sthe SeCOnd PhOnerne must be p Or t

48、 Or kthe thi rd PhOneme must be /I/ Or r Or whas four basiC types Of intonation:Fal Iing tone;RiSing tone;Fa I HriSe tone; R i se-faI I tone三、问答题are the three branches Of PhOnetics how do they COntr i bute to the StUdy Of SPeeCh SOUndArt i CUI atOry descr i bes the Way OUr SPeeCh OrganS WOrk to PrOd

49、UCe the SPeeCh SOUndS and how they d i fferAUditoryStUdies the PhySiCal PrOPerties Of SPeeCh SOUnds, reaches the important COnClUSiOn that PhOnetiC identity is Only a theoretical idea I.ACOUSticStUdies the PhySiCaI PrOPerties Of SPeeCh SOUndS ,the Way SOUnd trave I from the SPeaker to the hearer.发音语

50、音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有 所不同。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理 论上的理想。声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传 播方式。are the English COnSOnantS CIaSSifiedBy PI ace Of artiCUI ation and By manner Of artiCUI ationdo PhOnetics and PhOnOIOgy differ in thei r focus Of StUdy WhO do you think Wi I I be ITlOre intere

51、sted in the different betWeen say iandi, p andph, a PhonetiCian Or a PhiIOlOgiSt Why语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关 心清晰音的区别为什么PhOnetiCS descr i Ption Ofall SPeeCh SOUndS and thei r find d i fferencesPhOnO I Ogy 一descr i P tion Of SOU nd SyS terns Of Par ti CU Iar I anguages and how SOUndS function to

52、 diStinguiSh meaningA PhOnetiCian WOUId be more interested in SUCh differences COS SUCh differences Wi I I not COS differences in meaning.S a PhOne how i S i t d i fferent from a PhOnerne how are a I I OPhOneS re I ated to a PhOnernePhOnea SPeeCh SOUnd , a PhOnetiC UnitPhOnemea COI I ect i On Of abs

53、tract SOUnd features, a PhOnO IOgiCalunit.AI IOPhOneSactuaI reaIiZatiOn Of a PhOneme in differentPhOnetiC COntexts.i s a mini ma I Pa i r and a mi n ima I Set Why i S i t i mportant to i dent i fy the minimal Set in a Ianguage为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中 非常重要Minimal Pai rtwo SOUnd COmbinatiOnS identiCaI in ever

54、y Way except in One SOUnd eI ement that OCCUrS in the Same POS ition.除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外，其他部分都一样的两个语 音组合.Minima I Seta group Of SOUnd COmb i nat i OnS W i th the above feature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.By i dent i f y i ng the mini ma I Pair Or the minimal Set Of a I anguage, a Phi IOIOgiSt Can identify its PhO

55、nemeS通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组，音位学家能辨别出它的 音位.With examp Ies how broad tranSCr i Ption and narrow One transcr iPtion differBrOad tranSCr i PtionOne Ietter SymbO I for One sound.NarrOW tranSCr iPtiondiacr itics are added to the One-etter SyfnbOIS to ShOW the finer differences betWeen sounds.the SeqUe nt ia

56、l rule, the assimi IatiOn ru I e and the de I e tion ru I e.有序规则 SeqUent i a I ru I esRUI es that govern the COmb ination Of SoUndS in a PartiCUI ar Ianguage同化规则 ASSimi IatiOn ruIesThe assimi I ation rule assimi I ates One SOUnd to another by, COPying , a feature Of a SeqUential phoneme, thus making

57、 the two PhOneS Simi Iar省略规则DeletiOn ru I eIt S a PhOnOIOgiCal rule WhiCh tells US When a SOUnd is tObe de Ieted although its OrthographicalIy represented.ChaPter Three MOrPhOIOgy一、定义1 词素 MOrPhemeThe basic Unit in the StUdy Of morphol Ogy and the Sma I Iest meaningful Unit Of IangUage自由词素 Free MOrPh

58、emeFree morphemes are independent UnitS Of meaning and Can be USed free Iy a I I by themseI VeS3黏着词素 BOUnd morphemesBOUnd morphemes are these morphemes that CanOt be USed by themseIves, must be COmbi ned With Other morphemes to form WOrdS that Can be USed independently.词根ROOtROOt is the base form Of

59、 a WOrd WhiCh CannOt be further ana Iyzed WithOUt total IOSS Of identity.词缀 AffiXThe COI I ective term for the type Of formative that Can be USed Only When added to another morpheme.曲折词缀 i nf I ect i Ona I aff i XeSThe manifestat ion Of grammatiCa I re I ationships through the addition Of inf Iectio

60、nal aff ixes, SUCh as number, tense, degree and CaSe派生词缀 Der i Vat i Ona I aff i XeSThe manifes tat ion Of re I a tion betw een St ems and affixes t hrough the addition Of der iVatiOnal affiXeS词干StemA Stenl i S the ex i S ting form to WhiCh a der i Va ti Onal affix Can be added a Stem Can be a bound