EquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy国际经贸高级

1、TEXT Growing Inequality The degree of income inequality varies greatly from region to region. It is greatest in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa, and lowest in Eastern Europe; other regions fall between these two extremes. In Latin America, the average Gini coefficientthe most commonly used meas

2、ure of inequality, with 0 representing perfect equality and 1 representing total inequalityis almost 0.5. The average Gini coefficient in sub-Saharan Africa is slightly lower, but there is considerable variation among countries. Income inequality has a regional dimension in both Africa and Latin Ame

3、ricaaverage incomes are significantly higher in urban areas than in rural areas.Unit NineShould Equity Be a Goal of Economic Policy?Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Inrecentyears, incomeinequality hasbeen increasinginalargenumberofcountries.This increase hasbeen moststrikinginthe trans

4、itioneconomies,wheretheaverageGini coefficient hadbeen around0.25 until thelate 1980s;bythemid1990s,ithadrisentomorethan 0.30. While thismay notappeartobealargeincrease,itisquitesignificantfor theshortperiodbeingassessed. Ginicoefficients tendtoberelativelystableincountries overlongperiods.Incomeine

5、qualityhasalsoincreasedinseveralmajorindustrial countriesandisbeginning to increase in someEastAsiancountries.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Much of thedebateaboutincome distributionhascenteredonwageearnings.But wages tellonlypart of thestory.The distributionofwealth(and,byimplicatio

6、n, capitalincome)ismore concentratedthan labor income.InAfrica andLatinAmerica,unequal ownershipofland hasbeen identifiedasanimportant factorintheoveralldistributionofincome.Furthermore,inrecent years,therehasbeena shift fromlabortocapitalincome(includingincomefromself employment) in manycountries.I

7、ntransition countries,thisshifthasbeendueprimarily to theprivatization of state-owned assets.The analysis of trendsinnonlaborincomeincountries withwelldevelopedcapitalmarkets andpension funds is morecomplicated. Pensionfundsand other financialinstitutionsreceivea sizableportionofcapital income,and t

8、heshareofcapital incomeintotalhouseholdincome typicallychanges overthe lifecycleofthe individuals in eachhousehold.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?IsGlobalization theCause?Globalization haslinkedthe labor,product,andcapitalmarkets of economiesaroundthe world.Increasedtrade, capitaland

9、 labor movements,and technologicalprogresshaveledtogreaterspecializationinproduction andthedispersionofspecializedproduction processestogeographicallydistant locations.Developingcountries, withtheirabundantsupply of unskilledlabor,havea comparative advantagerelativetodevelopedcountries in theproduct

10、ion of unskilled-labor-intensivegoodsand services.Asa result,productionoftheseproductsindevelopedcountries hascome under increasedcompetitivepressure.Economictheory tells us thisshould apply downward pressure on therelativecompensationofunskilled workersindeveloped countriesandupward pressure on the

11、compensationoftheircounterparts in developingcountries.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Basedonthis theory,someauthors haveclaimedthat globalizationistoblamefor growingincome inequalityindeveloped countries.Others argue thatthe widening gapbetween thewagesofskilled workersand unskilled

12、workers in thedevelopedcountries is duetothedevelopmentand dispersionofskill-intensive technologiesratherthantoincreasedtrade. Severalempirical studieshavetriedtogaugetherelativeimportanceofboth trade andtechnological progress in thedecline of relative wages of unskilledworkers in developedcountries

13、. Estimatesofthecontribution of increasedtradetothetotalincreaseofthe wagedifferential betweenunskilled andskilled workersrangefromnegligible to 50 percent. Thislargevariation is afunctionofthe structureofproduction in developedcountriesand theshareoftheirlabormarketthatisindirectcompetitionwithlow-

14、skilledworkers in developingcountries.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Thedebate regardingtheeffect of globalizationonincome distributionindeveloping countriesmirrors thedebateondeveloped countries.Although, allotherthingsbeingequal, increasedopennesswouldbeexpectedtoincreasetherelativ

15、ewagesofunskilled workersindevelopingcountries, experiencehas beenmixed. Evidence suggests thatthe relative wages of unskilledworkers increasedinEast Asian countriesinthe1960sand 1970s butdecreasedinLatinAmericainthe1980sand early 1990s.Therearetwo possible explanationsforwhy wages fellinLatinAmeric

16、a:first, theopening up of developingAsiancountriesBangladesh, China,India,Indonesia,andPakistanwhereunskilled labor is evenmoreabundant;second,theavailability of newproduction technologiesthat arebiasedtoward skilledlabor.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Theeffect globalizationhas on i

17、ncomedistributionseemstobedeterminedtosome extentbya countryslevelofdevelopmentandthe technologiesavailabletoit. Similarly,exposuretointernationalcompetitionmaychange institutions(for example, trade unions)and therebyaffect incomedistribution. Someobservers contendthat,becauseofthemobilityofcapital,

18、globalizationlimitsthe abilityofunionworkerstoachieve a“union wagepremium,” thusdecreasingthebargainingpowerofworkersvis-viscapital.Inaddition,globalizationmayleadtosharpshort-runchangesinthedistribution of income,asbarrierstotradeare reducedand thedistributionofproductionisreallocatedamongsectors.U

19、nit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Itisoftenarguedthatglobalization makes it moredifficult forgovernmentstoimplementequitable policies.Increasinglymobile capitaland labor havelimitedtheabilityofgovernmentstolevy taxes andtransferincometothoseaffectedbyglobalization.Tothe extentthat capita

20、lismoremobilethanlabor,the incidenceoftaxestofinance safetynets forthoseaffectedbyglobalization is shiftedtolabor.PolicyResponsesTheextent to which countrieshave focusedonpromoting equityandthe strategiestheyhave adoptedvarywidely. Somecountries haveactivelypromotedthe useofpublicresources to raise

21、theincomes of those on thebottomtieroftheincome distribution.Others havefocusedonthetop percentiles by levyinghighly progressive taxes.Yetothers,concernedthatpoliciestargetingthe poormay resultineconomicinefficienciesanddistortionsthatretardgrowth,have taken an indirect approach,seeking to helplowin

22、comefamiliesbystimulatingoverall economic growth.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?InLatinAmerica duringthe1980s, theprimary goalofpolicymakers wasachievingsustainablegrowth,andaviablebalanceofpaymentsandstructuralreforms wereseenascriticaltoachievingthisgoal.Growthhas alsobeenoneofthe

23、primarygoalsofthe transitioneconomies,buttheirstrategieshave included policies aimed at helpinggroups likelytobehurt by thetransition.Such policies haveincludedthe distributionofsharesofprivatizedenterprises,the adaptationofsocial policyinstrumentstoprotect vulnerablegroups,andthe establishmentofsoc

24、ial safetynets (forexample,targetedsubsidies,cash compensationinlieu of subsidies,severance payandretrainingforretrenchedpublicsector employees,and publicworksprograms). However, thelack of budgetaryresourceshas madeimplementationofthesepoliciesdifficult.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolic

25、y?Fiscalpolicytaxation andspendingisa governmentsmost directtool forredistributingincome, in boththe short andthelongrun. However, theeffectofredistributivetax policies,especially in theface of globalization, hasbeen small.Policymakersshould focus on developingabroadly based,efficient, andeasilyadmi

26、nistered taxsystemwithmoderatemarginalrates.Althoughthe primarygoalofthetax systemshouldbetopromoteefficiency,policymakersalsoneed to consider howtodistribute theburdenoftaxationsothe systemisseen as fairand just.Theexpendituresideofthebudget offersbetteropportunitiesthan thetaxsideforredistributing

27、income.Thelinkbetween incomedistributionand socialspendingespecially spending on healthandeducation,through which governments caninfluencethe formationanddistribution of human capitalisparticularly strong,and publicinvestment in thehumancapital of thepoor canbeanefficientway to reduceincomeinequalit

28、yover thelong run.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Theamount of resourcesgovernmentscanand shoulddevotetosocial expendituresdepends on variousfactors,including thetax-to-GDP ratio andtheresources devotedtootherspending. Publicexpendituresshould displace privateexpenditures onlywhenthey

29、 yield highersocialbenefits. Priority shouldbegiventothemostproductive publicexpenditures, andunproductivepublic expendituresforexample,excessive military spending,wagesforanover-staffed civil service, andbudgetarytransfers to inefficient publicenterprisesshouldbecurtailed.Civilservice reformandthe

30、privatizationofservicesthatcanbebetter provided by theprivate sectorespecially if accompanied by areallocation of expenditurestothesocial sectorsare likelytobeboth growth-and equity-enhancing, particularlyindeveloping countries,wherepublic sectoremployeescomeprimarilyfromthemiddle-andupper-middle-in

31、comeclasses.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Outlays on healthandeducation canimprove theexistingpattern of incomedistribution, dependingtoa large extentontheirallocation withinsectors andwhoreceivesthe benefits.Studies showthatspendingonbasichealthcareandprimaryeducationisfar moreeffe

32、ctive in reaching thepoor thanspendingonhigher educationorhospital-basedcurativecare;theformer reducesdisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincome groupsandcan decrease incomeinequality in thelong run(see “PublicSpendingonHumanDevelopment,”bySanjeevGupta,BenedictClements, andErwinTiongsoninthis issue).Stud

33、iesalso showthat,incountries withoutsomeform of healthrisk pooling, seriousillnesses arethesingle mostimportant factordriving families intopoverty.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Althoughfiscalpolicy is usuallyviewed as theprincipalvehicleforassisting low-incomegroups andthoseaffected

34、byreformprograms, anumber of countrieshave introducedspecificlabormarket policies in an efforttoinfluenceincome distribution,the rationalebeingthat relative wages exert astrong influenceonoverall incomeinequality.Many European countrieshave opted forhigh minimumwages, generous unemploymentbenefits,a

35、nd awiderangeofjob-protectionmeasures.Althoughthesepoliciescan resultinrigidities,advocatesmaintainthatthey helpachievea socially desirableredistributionofincome, while opponentsarguethat theydiscouragenewinvestmentanddampen jobcreationandgrowth.TheUnited States,whichhas opted formore flexible labor

36、 markets, hasachievedhigh employmentlevels,butthe costmay be greaterincome inequality. To mitigate thepotentialeffect of marketflexibilityonlow-wageworkers,theUnited Stateshasintroducedwage subsidiesthatUnit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?simultaneouslyredistributeincome andpromote employ

37、ment. Given thepotentiallylargeimpactoflabormarket policies on earnings,thesecompetingvisionsofthelabormarket arecentral to thedebateoverincomeinequalityinmany developingand newly industrialized countries.Governmentscanalsoindirectly affectincomelevels anddistributionthroughmonetarypolicyand their o

38、verallmacroeconomicstance. Forexample,high inflationtendstocurtail economic growthandincreaseincome inequality. Trade liberalizationespeciallywhenitoccursindevelopingcountriesthathave hadrestrictivetradepolicies,suchastaxationofagriculturalexportsandprotectivetariffs on importsmay boost economic gro

39、wthandleadtomore equitableconditions.Currencydevaluationsmay alsohaveimplicationsfor equity,particularly in low-incomecountries,wherethepoorareoftenconcentrated in theagriculture-intensiveexport sectorandmiddle-andupper-income urban dwellers tendtobemoredependentonimports.Unit NineShould EquityBea G

40、oalofEconomicPolicy?Another importantissueiswhether governments shouldfocusonoutcomessuch as decreasingthe numberofpeopleliving in povertyoronensuringthatallmembersofsociety haveequalopportunities.Inextremecasesofincomeinequality,outcomesare clearlycritical. In other cases,setting up alevelplayingfi

41、eldmaybeall thatisnecessary,andgreateremphasiscanbeplaced on policies thatfacilitatemobilitybetween incomeclasses andonensuringthat incomeandwealth areacquiredjustlyand fairly.Measuresgovernmentscan taketopromoteequalityofopportunityinclude deregulatingtheeconomy;settingupstrong, accountable institu

42、tions,including awell-functioningjudicialsystem; reducing opportunitiesfor corruptpractices (curbing corruptioncan directly reduceincomeinequality,becausethegainsfromcorrupt practicestend to be captured by thewell-to-do);and providingadequateaccesstohealth andeducationservices.Unit NineShould Equity

43、Bea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Governmentsseeking to implementequity-orientedpoliciesfacea numberofobstacles. First andforemostisthefinancing required:high levelsofspendingontargetedprogramsmaynot be consistentwitha sustainable macroeconomicframework.Second, governments in manydevelopingcountries, where a

44、largeshareofthe populationisengagedinruralandinformalsector activities, maybeunabletoreachthe mostvulnerablegroups. Theruralandinformalsectorsmayhavelimited interaction withformal sectorinstitutions, includingthegovernment,making thedeliveryofgovernment assistance(forexample,cash transfers)problemat

45、ic. In asimilarvein,a lackofadministrativecapacitymay hamperredistributiveefforts;forexample,tax evasionisasevereproblemincountrieswithweak taxadministration,making it difficultforgovernmentstouse thetaxsystem as avehicletofinance redistributive policies.Politicalconstraintslow-incomegroupstypically

46、 havelesspoliticalpowerthanotherUnit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?interestgroupsmay impedeefforts to reallocatespendingtoward thepoor or redistributeland or other assetstothem.Legalimpedimentsmayalsoprevent governments fromtaking measures to promoteequityforexample,constitutionalruleson

47、revenue sharingmay limit theamountofresources acentralgovernment canallocatetoredistributivepolicies.(excerpted fromFinance &Development, September1998)Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Exercises.Translatethe followinginto English, using thewordsorphrases in thetext:1.衡量收入入分配的最常用的指标them

48、ostcommonlyused measures of incomedistribution2.从劳动力力市场向向资本市市场的转转移theshiftfromlabourtocapitalmarkets3.生产专业业化和专专业化生生产过程程的扩散散specializationinproduction andthedispersionofspecializedproduction processesUnit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?4.熟练工与与非熟练练工之间间日益拉拉大的工工资差距距5.偏向于技技术劳动动力的新新生产技技术newprod

49、uctiontechniques biasedtowardskilledlabor6.阻碍增长长的经济济无效率率和扭曲曲economicinefficiencyand distortions retardinggrowth7.可持续增增长和可可行的收收支政策策sustainablegrowthand aviable balance-of-paymentspolicythewideninggap betweenthe wages of skilledworkersandthoseofunskilledworkersUnit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicP

50、olicy?8.具有广泛泛基础的的、有效效而易于于管理的的税收体体系9.减少不同同收入集集团人力力资本的的明显差差异reducedisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincome groups10.与宏观经经济规划划相一致致的既定定项目targetedprogramsconsistent withthe macroeconomicframework11.关于财政政收入分分配的宪宪法原则则constitutionalrulesonrevenue sharinga broadly-based, efficientandeasily administeredtaxsystem

51、Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?12.通过解除除经济的的规定管管制来促促进机会会平等13.取代津贴贴的现金金补偿cash compensationinlieu of subsidies14.刺激公共共资源利利用和整整体经济济增长stimulatethe useofpublicresources andtheoveralleconomicgrowth15.采取有效效措施促促进就业业和公平平take effectivemeasurestopromote employmentand equitytopromote equality of

52、opportunitiesthroughderegulatingeconomyUnit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?.Translatethe followingsentencesintoEnglish:1.关于收入入分配的的大部分分辩论集集中在工工资收入入上，它它被认为为是整体体收入分分配的一一个重要要因素。但在非非洲和拉拉丁美洲洲，不平平等的土土地所有有权是一一个不可可忽略的的因素。(centeron)Much of thedebateaboutincome distributionhascenteredonwageearnings,

53、whichhas beenidentifiedasanimportantfactor in theoverall distributionofincomes.ButinAfrica andLatinAmerica,unequal ownershipofland is afactor thatcannot be ignored.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?2.全球化将将全世界界各经济济体的劳劳动力、产品和和资本市市场连接接起来，并间接接导致生生产专业业化和专专业化生生产过程程向地理理位置遥遥远地区区扩散。(dispersion)G

54、lobalization haslinkedthe labor,product andcapital marketsofthe economiesaroundthe world andhasindirectlyledtogreaterspecializationinproduction andthedispersionofspecializedproduction processestogeographicallydistant locations.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?3.尽管财政政政策被被视为帮帮助低收收入人群群和受改

55、改革计划划影响的的人们的的主要工工具，许许多国家家采取了了具体的的劳动力力市场政政策来试试图影响响收入分分配。(inaneffortto)Althoughfiscalpoliciesare usuallyviewed as theprincipalvehicleforassisting lowincomegroups andthoseaffectedbyreformprograms, quite anumber of countrieshave adoptedspecificlabormarket policies in an efforttoinfluenceincome distribut

56、ion.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?4.政府所能能采取的的促进机机会均等等的措施施包括：取消对对经济的的规定管管制；建建立包括括运作良良好的司司法体系系在内的的强有力力的，负负责任的的机构；减少腐腐败行为为的机会会；提供供获得健健康和教教育服务务的充足足机会等等。(deregulate)Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromote equality of opportunitiesincludederegulatingthe economy; settingupstrong andresponsible

57、institutions, includinga wellfunctioningjudicialsystem;reducingopportunities forcorrupt practices;and providingadequateaccesstohealth andeducationservices.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?5.另一个重重要问题题是政府府是否应应该关注注结果，比如减减少贫困困人数，或保证证每个人人都有公公平的机机会。(ensure)Another importantissueiswhether gov

58、ernments shouldfocusonoutcomessuch as decreasingthe numberofpeopleliving in poverty, or ensuring thatall membersofsocietyhave equal opportunities.Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?.Putthe followingpassage intoEnglish:有一种关关于财富富分配的的理论表表明，不不合理的的分配和和腐败是是造成收收入水平平不公的的主要原原因。这这一理论论认为，财富要要经历4个分配

59、阶阶段市场、政政府、非非政府组组织、以以及主要要表现为为腐败的的非法活活动。通通常第一一个分配配阶段市场会导致资资源分布布不均，而这应应该由第第二个分分配阶段段，即政政府，来来纠正。在第三三个阶段段，财富富的分配配是通过过非政府府部门的的捐赠来来实现的的。捐款款是以慈慈善活动动的形式式赠予穷穷人的。接着便便是对财财富的非非法掠夺夺，如抢抢劫、贪贪污、逃逃税和贿贿赂。这这些对社社会的公公平和稳稳定所造造成的伤伤害是巨巨大的，而且是是无法测测量的。Unit NineShould EquityBea GoalofEconomicPolicy?Onetheory on wealthdistributi

60、onindicates thatirrationaldistributionand corruptionare themajorreasons fortheuneven incomelevel.According to thistheory,wealthgoesthrough fourstages of distributionthemarket,thegovernment,non-governmentalorganizations andunlawfulactivities,mainlycorruption.Usuallythefirststageofdistributionthemarke