建筑物的组成及高层结构造价专业毕业论文页

1、 Evaluation Warning: The document was created with Spire.Doc for .NET.Components of A Building and Tall BuildingsMaterials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical a

2、nd electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th centu

3、ry: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Expositi

4、on of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.The ffirsst eelevvatoor wwas insstallledd byy Ellishha OOtiss innstaalleed tt

5、he firrst eleevattor in a ddepaartmmentt sttoree inn Neew YYorkk inn 18857.In 18889; Eifffell innstaalleed tthe firrst eleevattorss onn a graand scaale in thee Eiiffeel TToweer, whoose hyddrauulicc ellevaatorrs ccoulld ttrannspoort 2,3350 passsenngerrs tto tthe summmitt evveryy hoour.Load-Carrryiing

6、 Fraame. Unntill thhe llatee 199th cennturry, thee exxterriorr waallss off a buiildiing werre uusedd ass beeariing wallls to suppporrt tthe flooorss. TThiss coonsttrucctioon iis eesseentiiallly aa poost andd liinteel ttypee, aand it is stiill useed iin fframme cconsstruuctiion forr hoousees. Beaarin

7、ng-wwalll coonsttrucctioon llimiitedd thhe hheigght of buiildiingss beecauuse of thee ennormmouss waall thiicknnesss reequiiredd；Forr innstaancee, tthe 16-stoory Monnadnnockk Buuilddingg buuiltt inn thhe 118800s iin CChiccagoo haad wwallls 55 feeet (1.5 mmeteers) thhickk att thhe lloweer fflooors. I

8、nn 18883, Wiilliiam Le Barron Jennneyy (118322-19907) suuppoorteed fflooors on casst-iironn coolummns to forrm aa caage-likke cconsstruuctiion. Skkeleetonn coonsttrucctioon, connsisstinng oof ssteeel bbeamms aand collumnns, wass fiirstt ussed in 18889. As a cconssequuencce oof sskelletoon cconsstruu

9、ctiion, thhe eencllosiing wallls beccomee a “currtaiin wwalll” raatheer tthann seerviing a ssuppporttingg fuuncttionn. MMasoonryy waas tthe currtaiin wwalll maaterriall unntill thhe 119300s, wheen llighht mmetaal aand glaass currtaiin wwallls wweree ussed. Affterr thhe iintrroduuctiion of buiildiing

10、ss coontiinueed tto iincrreasse rrapiidlyy. All ttalll buuilddinggs wweree buuiltt wiith a sskelletoon oof ssteeel uuntiil WWorlld WWar . AAfteer tthe warr, tthe shoortaage of steeel andd thhe iimprroveed qquallityy off cooncrretee leed tto ttalll buuilddingg beeingg buuiltt off reeinfforcced conncr

11、eete. Maarinna TToweer (19662) in Chiicaggo iis tthe talllesst cconccrette bbuilldinng iin tthe Uniitedd Sttatees；Itss heeighht5888 feeet (1779 mmeteers)is excceedded by thee 6550-ffoott (1198-metter) Poost Offficee Toowerr inn Loondoon aand by othher towwerss.A chaangee inn atttittudee abboutt skky

12、sccrapper connstrructtionn haas bbrouughtt a retturnn too thhe uuse of thee beeariing walll. In Neww Yoork Citty, thee Coolummbiaa Brroaddcasstinng SSysttem Buiildiing, deesiggnedd byy Eeero Saaarinnen in 19662, hass a perrimeeterr waall connsisstinng oof 55-fooot (1.5meeterr) wwidee cooncrretee coo

13、lummns spaacedd 100 feeet (3 metterss) ffromm coolummn ccentter to cennterr. TThiss peerimmeteer wwalll, iin eeffeect, coonsttituutess a beaarinng wwalll. OOne reaasonn foor tthiss trrendd iss thhat stiiffnnesss aggainnst thee acctioon oof wwindd caan bbe eeconnomiicallly obttainned by usiing thee w

14、aallss off thhe bbuilldinng aas aa tuube； thhe WWorlld TTradde CCentter buiildiing is anootheer eexammplee off thhis tubbe aapprroacch. In conntraast, riigidd frramees oor vvertticaal ttrusssess arre uusuaallyy prroviidedd too giive latteraal sstabbiliity.Skin. TThe skiin oof aa buuilddingg coonsiis

15、tss off booth traansppareent eleemennts (wiindoows) annd oopaqque eleemennts (waallss). Winndowws aare traadittionnallly gglasss, altthouugh plaastiics aree beeingg ussed, esspecciallly in schhoolls wwherre bbreaakagge ccreaatess a maiinteenannce proobleem. Thee waall eleemennts, whhichh arre uusedd

16、 too cooverr thhe sstruuctuure andd arre ssuppportted by it, arre bbuillt oof aa vaarieety of matteriialss: bbricck, preecasst cconccrette, stoone, oppaquue gglasss, plaastiics, stteell, aand aluuminnum. Woood is useed mmainnly in houuse connstrructtionn； Itt iss noot ggeneerallly useed ffor commmer

17、rciaal, inddusttriaal, or pubblicc buuilddingg beecauuse of thee fiire hazzardd.Floorrs. TThe connstrructtionn off thhe fflooors in a bbuilldinng ddepeendss onn thhe bbasiic sstruuctuurall frramee thhat is useed. In steeel skeeletton connstrructtionn, fflooors aree eiitheer sslabbs oof cconccrette r

18、resttingg onn stteell beeamss orr a decck cconssisttingg off coorruugatted steeel witth aa cooncrretee tooppiing. Inn cooncrretee coonsttrucctioon, thee flloorrs aare eittherr sllabss off cooncrretee onn cooncrretee beeamss orr a serriess off clloseely spaacedd cooncrretee beeamss (rribss) iin ttwo

19、dirrecttionns ttoppped witth aa thhin conncreete slaab, givvingg thhe aappeearaancee off a waffflee onn itts uundeersiide. Thhe kkindd off flloorr thhat is useed ddepeendss onn thhe sspann beetweeen suppporrtinng ccoluumnss orr waallss annd tthe funnctiion of thee sppacee. IIn aan aaparrtmeent buiil

20、diing, foor iinsttancce, wheere wallls andd coolummns aree sppaceed aat 112 tto 118 ffeett (33.7 to 5.55 meeterrs), thhe mmostt poopullar connstrructtionn iss a sollid conncreete slaab wwithh noo beeamss. TThe undderssidee off thhe sslabb seervees aas tthe ceiilinng ffor thee sppacee beeloww itt. CC

21、orrrugaatedd stteell deeckss arre oofteen uusedd inn offficce bbuilldinngs beccausse tthe corrruggatiionss, wwhenn enncloosedd byy annothher sheeet of mettal, foorm duccts forr teelepphonne aand eleectrricaal llinees.Mechaaniccal andd Ellecttriccal Sysstemms. A mmodeern buiildiing nott onnly conntai

22、ins thee sppacee foor wwhicch iit iis iinteendeed (offficee, cclasssrooom, apparttmennt) butt allso conntaiins anccilllaryy sppacee foor mmechhaniicall annd eelecctriicall syysteems thaat hhelpp too prroviide a ccomfforttablle eenviironnmennt. Theese anccilllaryy sppacees iin aa skkysccrapper offfic

23、ee buuilddingg maay cconsstittutee 255% oof tthe tottal buiildiing areea. Thee immporrtannce of heaatinng, venntillatiing, ellecttriccal, annd pplummbinng ssysttemss inn ann offficce bbuilldinng iis sshowwn bby tthe facct tthatt 400% oof tthe connstrructtionn buudgeet iis aalloocatted to theem. Becc

24、ausse oof tthe inccreaasedd usse oof ssealled buiildiing witth wwinddowss thhat cannnott bee oppeneed, elaaborratee meechaaniccal sysstemms aare proovidded forr veentiilattionn annd aair conndittionningg. DDuctts aand pippes carrry freesh airr frrom cenntraal ffan roooms andd aiir ccondditiioniing m

25、acchinneryy. TThe ceiilinng, whiich is susspenndedd beeloww thhe uuppeer fflooor cconsstruuctiion, coonceealss thhe dducttworrk aand conntaiins thee liighttingg unnitss. EElecctriicall wiirinng ffor powwer andd foor tteleephoone commmunnicaatioon mmay alsso bbe llocaatedd inn thhis ceiilinng sspacce

26、 oor mmay be burriedd inn thhe fflooor cconsstruuctiion in pippes or connduiits.Theree haave beeen aatteemptts tto iincoorpooratte tthe mecchannicaal aand eleectrricaal ssysttemss innto thee arrchiiteccturre oof bbuilldinng bby ffrannklyy exxpreessiing theem； Foor eexammplee, tthe Ameericcan Reppubl

27、lic Inssuraancee Coompaany Buiildiing (19965) inn Dees MMoinnes, Ioowa, exxposses botth tthe duccts andd thhe fflooor sstruuctuure in an orgganiizedd annd eeleggantt paatteern andd diispeensees wwithh thhe ssusppendded ceiilinng. Thiis ttypee off appprooachh maakess itt poossiiblee too reeducce tthe

28、 cosst oof tthe buiildiing andd peermiits innnovaatioons, suuch as in thee sppan of thee sttruccturre.Soilss annd FFounndattionns. Alll buuilddingg arre ssuppportted on thee grrounnd, andd thhereeforre tthe natturee off thhe ssoill beecommes an exttremmelyy immporrtannt cconssideerattionn inn thhe d

29、desiign of anyy buuilddingg. TThe dessignn off a fouundaatioon ddepeendss onn maany soiil ffacttorss, ssuchh ass tyype of soiil, soiil sstraatifficaatioon, thiicknnesss off sooil lavverss annd ttheiir ccomppacttionn, aand groounddwatter conndittionns. Soiils rarrelyy haave a ssinggle commpossitiion；

30、 Thhey genneraallyy arre mmixtturees iin llayeers of varryinng tthicckneess. Foor eevalluattionn, ssoills aare graadedd acccorrdinng tto ppartticlle ssizee, wwhicch iincrreasses froom ssiltt too cllay to sannd tto ggravvel to rocck. In genneraal, thee laargeer ppartticlle ssoills wwilll suuppoort he

31、aavieer lloadds tthann thhe ssmalllerr onnes. Thhe hharddestt roock cann suuppoort loaads up to 1000 toons perr sqquarre ffoott(9776.55 meetriic ttonss/sqq meeterr), butt thhe ssofttestt siilt cann suuppoort a lloadd off onnly 0.225 tton perr sqquarre ffoott(2.44 mettricc toons/sq metter). AAll soii

32、ls benneatth tthe surrfacce aare in a sstatte oof ccomppacttionn； thhat is, thhey aree unnderr a preessuure thaat iis eequaal tto tthe weiightt off thhe ssoill coolummn aabovve iit. Manny ssoills (exxceppt ffor mosst ssandds aand gavvelss) eexhiibitt ellasttic prooperrtieestheey ddefoorm wheen ccomp

33、presssedd unnderr looad andd reebouund wheen tthe loaad iis rremoovedd. TThe elaastiicitty oof ssoills iis oofteen ttimee-deepenndennt, thaat iis, defformmatiionss off thhe ssoill occcurr ovver a llenggth of timme wwhicch mmay varry ffromm miinuttes to yeaars aftter a lloadd iss immpossed. Ovver a p

34、periiod of timme, a bbuilldinng mmay setttlee iff itt immposses a lloadd onn thhe ssoill grreatter thaan tthe natturaal ccomppacttionn weeighht oof tthe soiil. Connverrselly, a bbuilldinng mmay heaave if it impposees lloadds oon tthe soiil ssmalllerr thhan thee naaturral commpacctioon wweigght. Thhe

35、 ssoill maay aalsoo fllow undder thee weeighht oof aa buuilddingg； Thhat is, itt teendss too bee sqqueeezedd ouut.Due tto bbothh thhe ccomppacttionn annd ffloww efffeccts, buuilddinggs ttendd seettlle. Uneevenn seettllemeentss, eexemmpliifieed bby tthe leaaninng ttoweers in Pissa aand Bollognna, can

36、n haave dammagiing efffecttsthee buuilddingg maay lleann, wwallls aand parrtittionns mmay craack, wiindoows andd dooorss maay bbecoome inooperratiive, annd, in thee exxtreeme, a buiildiing mayy coollaapsee. UUnifformm seettllemeentss arre nnot so serriouus, altthouugh exttremme ccondditiionss, ssuch

37、h ass thhosee inn Meexicco CCityy, ccan havve sseriiouss coonseequeencees. Oveer tthe passt 1100 yeaars, a chaangee inn thhe ggrouundwwateer lleveel ttherre hhas cauusedd soome buiildiingss too seettlle mmoree thhan 10 feeet (3 mmeteers). BBecaausee suuch movvemeentss caan ooccuur dduriing andd afft

38、err coonsttrucctioon, carrefuul aanallysiis oof tthe behhaviior of soiils undder a bbuilldinng iis vvitaal.The ggreaat vvariiabiilitty oof ssoills hhas ledd too a varrietty oof ssoluutioons to thee foounddatiion proobleem. Wheere firrm ssoill exxistts cclosse tto tthe surrfacce, thee siimpllestt soo

39、luttionn iss too reest collumnns oon aa smmalll sllab of conncreete (sppreaad ffoottingg). Wheere thee sooil is soffterr, iit iis nneceessaary to sprreadd thhe ccoluumn loaad ooverr a greeateer aareaa；in thiis ccasee, aa coontiinuoous slaab oof cconccrette(rraftt orr maat) undder thee whholee buuild

40、dingg iss ussed. Inn caasess whheree thhe ssoill neear thee suurfaace is unaablee too suuppoort thee weeighht oof tthe buiildiing, piiless off woood, stteell, oor cconccrette aare driivenn doown to firrm ssoill.The cconsstruuctiion of a bbuilldinng pprocceedds nnatuurallly froom tthe fouundaatioon u

41、up tto tthe suppersstruuctuure. Thhe ddesiign proocesss, howweveer, prooceeeds froom tthe rooof ddownn too thhe ffounndattionn (iin tthe dirrecttionn off grraviity). IIn tthe passt, thee foounddatiion wass noot ssubjjectt too syysteemattic invvesttigaatioon. A sscieentiificc appprooachh too thhe dde

42、siign of fouundaatioons hass beeen devveloopedd inn thhe 220thh ceentuury. Kaarl Terrzagghi of thee Unniteed SStattes piooneeeredd sttudiies thaat mmadee itt poossiiblee too maake acccuraate preedicctioons of thee beehavviorr off foounddatiionss, uusinng tthe sciiencce oof ssoill meechaaniccs ccoupp

43、ledd wiith expplorratiion andd teestiing prooceddurees. Fouundaatioon ffaillurees oof tthe passt, succh aas tthe claassiicall exxampple of thee leeaniing towwer in Pissa, havve bbecoome almmostt noonexxisttentt. FFounndattionns sstilll aare a hhiddden butt coostlly ppartt off maany buiildiingss. Alt

44、hooughh thheree haave beeen mmanyy addvanncemmentts iin bbuilldinng cconsstruuctiion tecchnoologgy iin ggeneerall, sspecctacculaar aachiieveemennts havve bbeenn maade in thee deesiggn aand connstrructtionn off ulltraahiggh-rrisee buuilddinggs.The eearlly ddeveeloppmennt oof hhighh-riise buiildiingss

45、 beegann wiith strructturaal ssteeel fframmingg. RReinnforrcedd cooncrretee annd sstreesseed-sskinn tuube sysstemms hhavee siincee beeen ecoonommicaallyy annd ccomppetiitivvelyy ussed in a nnumbber of strructturees ffor botth rresiidenntiaal aand commmerrciaal ppurpposees. Thee hiigh-risse bbuilldin

46、ngs rannginng ffromm 500 too 1110 sstorriess thhat aree beeingg buuiltt alll ooverr thhe UUnitted Staatess arre tthe ressultt off innnovvatiionss annd ddeveeloppmennt oof nnew strructturaal ssysttemss.Greatter heiightt enntaiils inccreaasedd coolummn aand beaam ssizees tto mmakee buuilddinggs mmoree

47、 riigidd soo thhat undder winnd lloadd thhey willl nnot swaay bbeyoond an acccepttablle llimiit. Exccesssivee laaterral swaay mmay cauuse serriouus rrecuurriing dammagee too paartiitioons, ceeiliingss, aand othher arcchittectturaal ddetaailss. IIn aaddiitioon, exccesssivee swway mayy caausee diiscoo

48、mfoort to thee occcuppantts oof tthe buiildiing beccausse oof ttheiir pperccepttionn off suuch mottionn. SStruuctuurall syysteems of reiinfoorceed cconccrette, as welll aas ssteeel, takke ffulll addvanntagge oof tthe inhhereent pottenttiall sttifffnesss oof tthe tottal buiildiing andd thhereeforre d

49、do nnot reqquirre aaddiitioonall sttifffeniing to limmit thee swway.In a steeel strructturee, ffor exaamplle, thee ecconoomy cann bee deefinned in terrms of thee tootall avveraage quaantiity of steeel perr sqquarre ffoott off flloorr arrea of thee buuilddingg. TThe gapp beetweeen thee uppperr boound

50、daryy annd tthe lowwer bouundaary reppressentts tthe preemiuum ffor alll laaterral loaads. Thhe ggap bettweeen tthe uppper bouundaary andd thhe lloweer bbounndarry rreprreseentss thhe ppremmiumm foor hheigght forr thhe ttradditiionaal ccoluumn-andd-beeam fraame. Sttruccturral enggineeerss haave devv

51、eloopedd sttruccturral sysstemms wwithh a vieew tto eelimminaatinng tthiss prremiium.Systeems in steeel. Taall buiildiingss inn stteell deevellopeed aas aa reesullt oof sseveerall tyypess off sttruccturral innnovaatioons. Thhe iinnoovattionns hhavee beeen appplieed tto tthe connstrructtionn off boot

52、h offficee annd aaparrtmeent buiildiingss.Framees wwithh riigidd beelt truussees. In ordder to tiee thhe eexteerioor ccoluumnss off a fraame strructturee too thhe iinteerioor vvertticaal ttrusssess, aa syysteem oof rrigiid bbeltt trrussses at midd-heeighht aand at thee toop oof tthe buiildiing mayy

53、bee ussed. A goood eexammplee off thhis sysstemm iss thhe FFirsst WWiscconssin Bannk BBuilldinng (19774) in Millwauukeee.Frameed ttubee. TThe maxximuum eeffiicieencyy off thhe ttotaal sstruuctuure of a ttalll buuilddingg, ffor botth sstreengtth aand stiiffnnesss, tto rresiist winnd lloadd caan bbe a

54、achiieveed oonlyy iff alll ccoluumn eleemennts cann bee coonneecteed tto eeachh ottherr inn suuch a wway thaat tthe enttiree buuilddingg accts as a hholllow tubbe oor rrigiid bbox in proojecctinng oout of thee grrounnd. Thiis ppartticuularr sttruccturral sysstemm waas pprobbablly uusedd foor tthe fi

55、rrst timme iin tthe 43-stoory reiinfoorceed cconccrette DDeWiitt Cheestnnut Apaartmmentt Buuilddingg inn Chhicaago. Thhe mmostt siigniificcantt usse oof tthiss syysteem iis iin tthe twiin sstruuctuurall stteell toowerrs oof tthe 1100-sttoryy Woorldd Trradee Ceenteer bbuilldinng iin NNew Yorrk.Columm

56、n-ddiaggonaal ttrusss ttubee. TThe extteriior collumnns oof aa buuilddingg caan bbe sspacced reaasonnablly ffar apaart andd yeet bbe mmadee too woork toggethher as a ttubee byy coonneectiing theem wwithh diiagoonall meembeers intterssecttingg att thhe ccentter linne oof tthe collumnns aand beaams. T

57、hhis simmplee yeet eextrremeely effficiientt syysteem wwas useed ffor thee fiirstt tiime on thee Joohn Hanncocck CCentter in Chiicaggo, usiing as mucch ssteeel aas iis nnormmallly nneedded forr a traadittionnal 40-stoory buiildiing.Bundlled tubbe. Witth tthe conntinnuinng nneedd foor llargger andd t

58、aalleer bbuilldinngs, thhe fframmed tubbe oor tthe collumnn-diiagoonall trrusss tuube mayy bee ussed in a bbunddledd foorm to creeatee laargeer ttubee ennvellopees wwhille mmainntaiininng hhighh effficcienncy. Thhe 1110-stoory Seaars Roeebucck HHeaddquaarteers Buiildiing in Chiicaggo hhas ninne ttub

59、ees, bunndleed aat tthe basse oof tthe buiildiing in thrree rowws. Somme oof tthesse iindiividduall tuubess teermiinatte aat ddifffereent heiightts oof tthe buiildiing, deemonnstrratiing thee unnlimmiteed aarchhiteectuurall poossiibillitiies of thiis llateest strructturaal cconcceptt. TThe Seaars to

60、wwer, att a heiightt off 14450 ft (4442m), iis tthe worrlds ttalllestt buuilddingg.Stresssedd-skkin tubbe ssysttem. Thhe ttubee sttruccturral sysstemm waas ddeveelopped forr immproovinng tthe ressisttancce tto llateerall foorcees (winnd oor eeartthquuakee) aand thee coontrrol of driift (laaterral bu