reading理解古代艺术泥土如何形成文明出现

UnderstandingAncientMesoamericanStartingat oftheeighteenthcenturyandcontinuinguptothepresent,explorershavesearchedfortheruinsofancientMesoamerica,aregionthatincludesCentralAmericaandcentralandsouthernMexico.Withtheprogressoftime,archaeologistshaveunearthedcivilizationsincreasinglyremoteinage.Itisasifwitheachnewcenturyinthemoderneraanearlierstratumofantiquityhasbeenrevealed.Nineteenth-centuryexplorers,particularlyJohnLloydStephensandFrederickCatherwood,cameuponMayacitiesinthejungle,aswellasevidenceofotherClassiccultures.Twentieth-centuryresearchrevealedamuchearlierhighcivilization,theOlmec.ItnowscarcelyseemspossiblethatthefrontiersofearlyMesoamericancivilizationcanbepushedbackanyfurther,althoughnewwork—suchasinOaxaca,southernMexico—willcontinuetofillindetailsoftheTheprocessofdiscoveryoftenshswhatweknowaboutthehistoryofMesoamericanart.Newfindsarejustasoftenmadeaccidentallyasintentionally.In1971workersinstallingsoundandlightequipmentunderthePyramidoftheSunatTeotihuacanstumbleduponaremarkablecavethathassincebeeninterpretedbysomescholarsasaroyalburialchamber.Archaeologyhasitsownfashionstoo:theisolationofnewsitesmaybetheprimegoalinonedecadeandtheexcavationofpyramidsthefocusinthenext.Inathirddecade,outlyingstructuresratherthanprincipalbuildingsmayabsorbarchaeologists’energies.Norshouldonefetthatexcavatorsarevulnerabletolocalinterests.Atonepoint,reconstructionofpyramidstoattracttourismmaybedesired;atanother,archaeologistsmaybeprecludedfromworkingatwhathasalready eatouristattraction.Also,modernconstructionoftendetermineswhichancientsitescanbeexcavated.InMexicoCity,forexample,thebuildingofthesubwayinitiatedtheexcavationsthereandrenewedinterestintheoldAzteccapital.ButthestudyofMesoamericanartisnotbasedexclusivelyonarchaeology.Muchusefulinformationaboutthenativepopulationswaswrittendowninthesixteenthcentury,particularlyincentralMexico,anditcanhelpusunravelthepre-Columbianpast(thetimepriortothearrivalofColumbusintheAmericasin1492).Althoughmanysourcesexist,thesinglemostimportantonetothearthistorianisBernardinodeSahagún’sGeneralHistoryoftheThingsofNewSpain.AFranciscanfriar(memberoftheRomanCatholicreligiousorder),Sahagúnrecordedforposteritymanyaspectsofpre-Hispaniclifeinhisencyclopediaoftwelvebooks,includinghistory,ideology,andcosmogony(theoriesoftheoriginoftheuniverse),aswellasdetailedinformationonthematerialsandmethodsoftheskillednativecraftworkers.Furthermore,traditionalwaysoflifesurviveamongthenativepeoplesofMesoamerica,andscholarshaveincreasinglyfoundthatmodernpracticeandbeliefcandecodethepast.Remarkably,somescholarshavebeenturnedthisprocessaround,teachingancientwritingtomodernpeopleswhomayuseittoarticulatetheiridentityinthetwenty-Duringthepast40years,scholarsalsohavemadegreatprogressindecipheringandinterpretingancientMesoamericanwritingsystems,abreakthroughthathastransformedourunderstandingofthepre-Columbianmind.ClassicMayainscriptions,forexample—longthoughttorecordonlycalendricalinformationandastrologicalincantations—cannowberead,andwefindthatmostofthemglorifyfamilyandancestrybydisplayingtherightofindividualsovereignstorule.Thecarvingscanthusbeseenasportraitsorpublicrecordsofdynasticpower.AlthoughscholarslongbelievedthatMesoamericanartistsdidnotsigntheirworks,MayanistscholarDavidStuart’s1986decipheringoftheMayaglyphs(writtensymbols)for“scribe”and“towrite”openedawindowonMayapractice;nowweknowatleastonepainterofceramicvesselswasthesonofaking.Knowledgeoftheminorartshasalsocomeinlargepartthroughanactiveartmarket.Thousandsmoresmall-scaleobjectsareknownnowthaninthetwentiethcentury,althoughataterriblecosttotheancientruinsfromwhichtheyhavebeenParagraphStartingatoftheeighteenthcenturyandcontinuinguptothepresent,explorershavesearchedfortheruinsofancientMesoamerica,aregionthatincludesCentralAmericaandcentralandsouthernMexico.Withtheprogressoftime,archaeologistshaveunearthedcivilizationsincreasinglyremoteinage.Itisasifwitheachnewcenturyinthemoderneraanearlierstratumofantiquityhasbeenrevealed.Nineteenth-centuryexplorers,particularlyJohnLloydStephensandFrederickCatherwood,cameuponMayacitiesinthejungle,aswellasevidenceofotherClassiccultures.Twentieth-centuryresearchrevealedamuchearlierhighcivilization,theOlmec.ItnowscarcelyseemspossiblethatthefrontiersofearlyMesoamericancivilizationcanbepushedbackanyfurther,althoughnewwork—suchasinOaxaca,southernMexico—willcontinuetofillindetailsoftheAccordingtoparagraph1,whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheprogressmadeinthesearchforruinsofancientMesoamerica?TheoldestremainswerediscoveredimmediayafterColumbusarrived,andlaterfindingscorrespondtomorerecentruins.Fromthelateeighteenthcenturythroughthetwentiethcentury,increasinglyolderremainswerefound.AllofthearchaeologicalworkwascompletedinthetwentiethTechnologicaldevelopmentsmadeitprogressivelyeasierforexplorerstodiscoverMayancitiesinthejungle.Paragraph1supportswhichofthefollowingstatementsabouttherevealingofearlyMesoamericancivilization?TheMayaandOlmeccivilizationswerediscoveredbyexplorersatapproximaythesametime.MostofourunderstandingofMesoamericancivilizationcomesfromdiscoveriesmadeinthetwentiethcentury.ThediscoveriesmadeatOaxacainsouthernMexicoshowthattheOlmeccivilizationhaditsoriginsthere.EvidencestilltobefoundinOaxaca,Mexico,islikelytoprovideadditionalinformationaboutthehighcivilizationofearlyMesoamerica.ParagraphTheprocessofdiscoveryoftenshswhatweknowaboutthehistoryofMesoamericanart.Newfindsarejustasoftenmadeaccidentallyasintentionally.In1971workersinstallingsoundandlightequipmentunderthePyramidoftheSunatTeotihuacanstumbleduponaremarkablecavethathassincebeeninterpretedbysomescholarsasaroyalburialchamber.Archaeologyhasitsownfashionstoo:theisolationofnewsitesmaybetheprimegoalinonedecadeandtheexcavationofpyramidsthefocusinthenext.Inathirddecade,outlyingstructuresratherthanprincipalbuildingsmayabsorbarchaeologists’energies.Norshouldonefetthatexcavatorsarevulnerabletolocalinterests.Atonepoint,reconstructionofpyramidstoattracttourismmaybedesired;atanother,archaeologistsmaybeprecludedfromworkingatwhathasalready eatouristattraction.Also,modernconstructionoftendetermineswhichancientsitescanbeexcavated.InMexicoCity,forexample,thebuildingofthesubwayinitiatedtheexcavationsthereandrenewedinterestintheoldAzteccapital.Inparagraph2,whydoestheauthordiscussthePyramidoftheSunatTointroducethediscussionofaspecificstyleofMesoamericanToillustratetheimportanceofanaccidentalToemphasizethenecessityofsystematicToargueagainsttheuseofmodernequipmentinTheword"outlying"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningfarfromtheWhichofthefollowingisNOTmentionedinparagraph2asafactoraffectingtheprocessofdiscoveryinarchaeology?FashionsthatchangeoverThepopularityofarchaeologyasafieldofTheinterestsoflocalThebuildingofmodernTheword"initiated"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningoccurredatthesametimeParagraphButthestudyofMesoamericanartisnotbasedexclusivelyonarchaeology.Muchusefulinformationaboutthenativepopulationswaswrittendowninthesixteenthcentury,particularlyincentralMexico,anditcanhelpusunravelthepre-Columbianpast(thetimepriortothearrivalofColumbusintheAmericasin1492).Althoughmanysourcesexist,thesinglemostimportantonetothearthistorianisBernardinodeSahagún’sGeneralHistoryoftheThingsofNewSpain.AFranciscanfriar(memberoftheRomanCatholicreligiousorder),Sahagúnrecordedforposteritymanyaspectsofpre-Hispaniclifeinhisencyclopediaoftwelvebooks,includinghistory,ideology,andcosmogony(theoriesoftheoriginoftheuniverse),aswellasdetailedinformationonthematerialsandmethodsoftheskillednativecraftworkers.Furthermore,traditionalwaysoflifesurviveamongthenativepeoplesofMesoamerica,andscholarshaveincreasinglyfoundthatmodernpracticeandbeliefcandecodethepast.Remarkably,somescholarshavebeenturnedthisprocessaround,teachingancientwritingtomodernpeopleswhomayuseittoarticulatetheiridentityinthetwenty-century.Theword"exclusively"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningAccordingtoparagraph3,whywasBernardinodeSahagúnimportanttothestudyofMesoamericanart?HerecordeddetailedinformationaboutnativepopulationsinthesixteenthHemadeimportantarchaeologicaldiscoveriesincentralHestudiedthemethodsandmaterialsofskilledMesoamericancraftworkersasabasisforhisownart.HeencouragednativepeopletopreservetheirtraditionalwaysofTheword"posterity"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningthereligiousthenativefutureAccordingtoparagraph3,whichofthefollowingistrueofancientMesoamericanwriting?ItisverysimilartothemodernwritingofMesoamericanItisnotasoldasoriginallyItcanbeusedbymodernpeoplestoexpresstheirownItismostthoroughlyunderstoodbyskillednativecraftParagraphDuringthepast40years,scholarsalsohavemadegreatprogressindecipheringandinterpretingancientMesoamericanwritingsystems,abreakthroughthathastransformedourunderstandingofthepre-Columbianmind.ClassicMayainscriptions,forexample—longthoughttorecordonlycalendricalinformationandastrologicalincantations—cannowberead,andwefindthatmostofthemglorifyfamilyandancestrybydisplayingtherightofindividualsovereignstorule.Thecarvingscanthusbeseenasportraitsorpublicrecordsofdynasticpower.AlthoughscholarslongbelievedthatMesoamericanartistsdidnotsigntheirworks,MayanistscholarDavidStuart’s1986decipheringoftheMayaglyphs(writtensymbols)for“scribe”and“towrite”openedawindowonMayapractice;nowweknowatleastonepainterofceramicvesselswasthesonofaking.Knowledgeoftheminorartshasalsocomeinlargepartthroughanactiveartmarket.Thousandsmoresmall-scaleobjectsareknownnowthaninthetwentiethcentury,althoughataterriblecosttotheancientruinsfromwhichtheyhavebeenAccordingtoparagraph4,howdidthedecipheringofancientMesoamericaninscriptionstransformourunderstandingofthepre-ColumbianItshowedthatmostattentionwasgiventothepredictionandmagicalcontrolofthefuture.Itrevealedamuchgreaterconcernwiththeidentityandancestryofparticularindividualsthanhadbeened.ItdemonstratedthatpaintingwasregardedasaroyalItdisprovedtheideathattheMayadevotedmuchthoughttorecordkee.Accordingtoparagraph4,allofthefollowingaretrueofMayanistDavidStuart’s1986discoveryItreversedabeliefheldbyearlierItuncoveredlonglistsofroyaldynasticItallowedscholarstounderstandtwoglyphsfor ItrevealedthatatleastoneMayapainterwasaking’sParagraphTheprocessofdiscoveryoftenshswhatweknowaboutthehistoryofMesoamericanart.NewfindsarejustasoftenmadeaccidentallyasIn1971workersinstallingsoundandlightequipmentunderthePyramidoftheSunatTeotihuacanstumbleduponaremarkablecavethathassincebeeninterpretedbysomescholarsasaroyalburialchamber.■Archaeologyhasitsownfashionstoo:theisolationofnewsitesmaybetheprimegoalinonedecadeandtheexcavationofpyramidsthefocusinthenext.Inathirddecade,outlyingstructuresratherthanprincipalbuildingsmayabsorbarchaeologists’energies.■Norshouldonefetthatexcavatorsarevulnerabletolocalinterests.■Atonepoint,reconstructionofpyramidstoattracttourismmaybedesired;atanother,archaeologistsmaybeprecludedfromworkingatwhathasalready eatouristattraction.Also,modernconstructionoftendetermineswhichancientsitescanbeexcavated.InMexicoCity,forexample,thebuildingofthesubwayinitiatedtheexcavationsthereandrenewedinterestintheoldAzteccapital.Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecanbeaddedtothepassage.Thechancediscoveryhasdoneasmuchforourunderstandingofthepyramidasanysystematicstudywouldhave.WherewouldthesentencebestDirections:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Someanswerchoicesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpreeasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.Dragyourchoicestothespaceswheretheybelong.Toreviewthepassage,clickonViewText.OurknowledgeofMesoamericanarthasgrownsinceexplorersOurknowledgeofMesoamericanarthasgrownsinceexplorerssearchingforruinsofancientMesoamerica.●●●AnswerJohnLloydStephensandFrederickCatherwoodusedtheruinsofMayacitiesinthejungleasevidencethattheMayacivilizationwasolderthantheOlmecClassicMayainscriptionsprimarilyrecordedcalendricalinformation,incantations,andsignatureOftendiscoveriesaccidentally,Mesoamericanpyramidsnotonlycontainnumeroussamplesofnativeartbutalsoattracttourism.Words&theruinsofancientMesoamerica：古代洲的废unearthedcivilizationsincreasinglyremoteinage：出土（上越来unearth：v.anearlierstratumofantiquity：一个更早的古代岩层Stratum:岩层扩展：Stratification:(尤指社会的)分层，形成阶层Stratificationisthedivisionofsomething,especiallysociety,intodifferentclassesorcameuponMayacitiesinthejungle：偶然遇到密林里的玛雅城市Comeupon：偶然碰到或发现Ifyoucomeuponsomeoneorsomething,youmeetthemorfindthembychance.workersinstallingsoundandlightequipment：安装音响和光照设备的stumbleduponaremarkablecave：偶然发现一个极大的Stumble：v.跌跌撞撞走，结巴说stumbleuponaroyalburialchamber：一个皇室的埋葬密室royal：adj.皇室的theexcavationofpyramidsoutlyingstructuresratherthanprincipalbuildings结构而非主要建Outlying：adj.Outlyingplacesarefarawayfromthemaincitiesofacountryinitiatedtheexcavationsthere:了那个地方的考古挖initiate=start=trigger，开excavateunearthv.unravelv.pre-Columbian：adj.发现美洲大陆之前turnedthisprocessaround：将该过程反转turnaround=reverse反转toarticulatetheiridentityinthetwenty- 21世纪的articulate：v.ItnowscarcelyseemspossiblethatthefrontiersofearlyMesoamericancivilizationcanbepushedbackanyfurther,althoughnewwork—suchasinOaxaca,southernMexico—willcontinuetofillindetailsofthepicture.In1971workersinstallingsoundandlightequipmentunderthePyramidoftheSunatTeotihuacanstumbleduponaremarkablecavethathassincebeeninterpretedbysomescholarsasaroyalburialchamber.Archaeologyhasitsownfashionstoo:theisolationofnewsitesmaybetheprimegoalinonedecadeandtheexcavationofpyramidsthefocusinthenext.Atonepoint,reconstructionofpyramidstoattracttourismmaybedesired;atanother,archaeologistsmaybeprecludedfromworkingatwhathasalready eatouristattraction.Preclude：v.排除在外，AFranciscanfriar(memberoftheRomanCatholicreligiousorder),Sahagúnrecordedforposteritymanyaspectsofpre-Hispaniclifeinhisencyclopediaoftwelvebooks,includinghistory,ideology,andcosmogony(theoriesoftheoriginoftheuniverse),aswellasdetailedinformationonthematerialsandmethodsoftheskillednativecraftworkers.Catholic：adj.Posterity：n.后代=offspring=descendantEncyclopedia：n.百科全书Ideology：;思想体系;思想方式Anideologyisasetofbeliefs,especiallythepoliticalbeliewhichpeople,parties,orcountriesbasetheiractionsCosmogony：n.Craftworkers:Duringthepast40years,scholarsalsohavemadegreatprogressindecipheringandinterpretingancientMesoamericanwritingsystems,abreakthroughthathastransformedourunderstandingofthepre-Columbianmind.Decipher：v.=decode,cipher=codeTransform：v.转变ClassicMayainscriptions,forexample—longthoughttorecordonlycalendricalinformationandastrologicalincantations—cannowberead,andwefindthatmostofthemglorifyfamilyandancestrybydisplayingtherightofindividualsovereignstorule.astrologicalincantations：占星的语incantation：语Anincantationisaseriesofwordsthatasaysorsingsasamagicspellormakeitseemgoodorspecial,usuallywhenitisnotancestry：n集合词>sovereigns：n.AlthoughscholarslongbelievedthatMesoamericanartistsdidnotsigntheirworks,MayanistscholarDavidStuart’s1986decipheringoftheMayaglyphs(writtensymbols)for“scribe”and“towrite”openedawindowonMayapractice;nowweknowatleastonepainterofceramicvesselswasthesonofaking.Mayanist：玛decipher:破译 ；辨认（潦草字迹；解读；解释（古代文学glyphs：象形文practice:n.Youcanrefertosomethingthatpeopledoregularlyasapractice.Ceramicvessels:Vessel：n.Thousandsmoresmall-scaleobjectsareknownnowthaninthetwentiethcentury,althoughataterriblecosttotheancientruinsfromwhichtheyhavebeenplundered.Atacostatexpense以…plunder：v.，窃→TheprocessofdiscoveryoftenshswhatweknowaboutthehistoryofMesoamericanart.ArchaeologyhasitsownfashionsNorshouldonefetthatexcavatorsarevulnerabletolocalAlso,modernconstructionoftendetermineswhichancientsitescanbeexcavated.ButthestudyofMesoamericanartisnotbasedexclusivelyonDuringthepast40years,scholarsalsohavemadegreatprogressindecipheringandinterpretingancientMesoamericanwritingsystems,abreakthroughthathastransformedourunderstandingofthepre-Columbianmind.HowSoilisSoilformationisadynamicprocessthattakesplaceindifferentenvironments.Itisstronglyinfluencedbytheparentmaterial,climate(largelyvegetationandtemperatureandwaterexchanges),topography(theelevations,depressions,directionsandanglesofslopes,andothersurfacefeaturesofthelandsc),andTheparentmaterialistheunconsolidatedmassonwhichsoilformationtakesplace.Thismaterialmayormaynotbederivedfromtheon-sitegeologicalsubstrateorbedrockonwhichitrests.Parentmaterialscanbetransportedbywind,water,glaciers,andgravityanddepositedontopofbedrock.Becauseofthediversityofmaterialsinvolved,soilsderivedfromtransportedparentmaterialsarecommonlymorefertilethansoilsfromparentmaterialsderivedinplace.Whatevertheparentmaterial,whetherderivedinplacefrombedrockorfromtransportedmaterial,itultimaycomesfromgeologicalmaterials,suchasigneous,sedimentary,andmetamorphicrocks,andthecompositionoftherockslargelydeterminesthechemicalcompositionofthesoil.Climateismostinfluentialindeterminingthenatureandintensityofweatheringandthetypeofvegetationthatfurtheraffectssoilformation.Thesoilmaterialexperiencesdailyandseasonalvariationsinheatingandcooling.Opensurfacesexposedtothermalradiationundergothegreatestdailyfluctuationsinheatingandcooling,soilscoveredwithvegetationtheleast.Hillslopesfacingthesunabsorbmoreheatthanthosefacingawayfromthesun.Radiantenergyhasapronouncedeffectonthemoistureregime,especiallytheevaporativeprocessanddryness.TemperaturecanstimulateorinhibitbiogeochemicalreactionsinsoilWaterisinvolvedinallbiogeochemicalreactionsinthesoilbecauseitisthecarrieroftheacidsthatinfluencetheweatheringprocess.Waterentersthesoilmaterialasaliquidandleavesitasaliquidbypercolation(theslowmovementofwaterthroughthesoil’spores)andasagasthroughevaporation.Thewaterregime—thewaterflowoveragiventime—insoilmaterialissporadic,andinmanypartsoftheEarthishighlyseasonal.Waterthatentersthesoilduringheavyrainfallandsnowmeltmovesdownthroughthesoil.Asitmoves,itleavesbehindsuspendedmaterialandmaycarryawaymineralmatterinsolution,aprocesscalledleaching.Onsloland,waterdistributesmateriallaterally(sideways)throughthesoil.Topographyisamajorfactorinsoildevelopment.Morewaterrunsoffandlessentersthesoilonsteepslopesthanonrelativelylevelland.Waterdrainingfromslopesentersthesoilonlowandflatland.Thussoilsandsoilmaterialtendtobedryonslopesandmoistonwetonthelowland.Steepslopesaresubjecttosurfaceerosionandsoilcreep—thedownslopemovementofsoilmaterial,whichaccumulatesonlowerslopesandlowlands.Vegetation,animals,bacteria,andfungiallcontributetotheformationofsoil.Vegetation,inparticular,isresponsibleforanicmaterialinthesoilandinfluencesitsnutrientcontent.Forexample,forestsstoremostoftheiranicmatteronthesurface,whereasingrasslandsmostoftheanicmatteraddedtothesoilcomesfromthedeepfibrousrootsystems.anicacidsproducedbyvegetationacceleratethe