团队和小组管理

团队和小组管理Groups&TeamsGroup-twoormorepeoplewithcommoninterestsorobjectives

Team-asmallnumberofpeoplewithcomplementaryskillswhoarecommittedtoacommonmission,performancegoals,andapproachforwhichtheyholdthemselvesmutuallyaccountableCharacteristicsofaWell-Functioning,EffectiveGroupRelaxed,comfortable,informalatmosphereTaskwellunderstood&acceptedConsensusdecisionmakingPeopleexpressfeelings&ideasConflict&disagreementcenteraroundideasormethodsClearassignmentsmade&acceptedMemberslistenwell&participateGroupawareofitsoperation&functionGroupBehaviorNormsofbehavior-thestandardsthataworkgroupusestoevaluatethebehaviorofitsmembersGroupcohesion-the“interpersonalglue”thatmakesmembersofagroupsticktogetherSocialloafing-thefailureofagroupmembertocontributepersonaltime,effort,thoughts,orotherresourcestothegroupLossofindividuality-asocialprocessinwhichindividualgroupmembersloseself-awareness&itsaccompanyingsenseofaccountability,inhibition,andresponsibilityforindividualbehaviorGroupFormationFormalgroups-officialorassignedgroupsgatheredtoperformvarioustasksneedethnic,gender,cultural,andinterpersonaldiversityneedprofessionalandgeographicaldiversityInformalgroups-unofficialoremergentgroupsthatevolveintheworksettingtogratifyavarietyofmemberneedsnotmetbyformalgroupsStagesofGroupFormationMutualacceptanceFocusisontheinterpersonalrelationsamongthemembersDecisionmakingFocusisondecisionmakingactivitiesrelatedtotasksMotivation&commitmentFocusonself-andgroup-motivation,execution,achievementControl&sanctionsFocusoneffective,efficientunitJoiningGroupsSecurityStatusSelf-EsteemAffiliationPowerGoalAchievementPrestage1StageIFormingStageIIStormingStageIIINormingStageIVPerformingStageVAdjourningStagesofGroupDevelopmentGroupBehaviorModel

ExternalConditionsImposedontheGroupGroupMemberResourcesGroupStructureGroupProcessGroupTaskPerformanceandSatisfactionExternalConditionsImposedontheGroupOrganizationalStrategyAuthorityStructuresFormalRegulationsOrganizationalResourcesPersonnelSelectionsProcessOrganizationalCulturePhysicalWorkSettingGroupLeadersDepartmentManagerSupervisorsForemanProjectLeadersTaskForceHeadChairpersonChiefExecutiveOfficer(CEO)GroupRolesDefinition:Setofexpectedbehaviorpattern,attributedtosomeoneoccupyingagivenpositioninasocialunitRoleIdentityRolePerceptionRoleExpectationsRoleConflictTypesofTeamsProblemsolving-qualitycircleSelf-managedworkteams-mayresultinreductionofmanagerialpositionsCross-functional-samelevelbutdifferentworkareas?Cross-functionalProblem-SolvingSelf-managedTypesofTeamsWorkGroupsWorkTeamsShareInformationNeutral(sometimesNegative)IndividualRandom&VariedCollectivePerformancePositiveIndividual&MutualComplementaryGoalSynergyAccountabilitySkillsComparingWork

GroupsandWorkTeamsGroupsPassThroughTask-OrientedandRelationship-OrientedStages.SomeGroupsGetStuckatCertainStagesandBecomeDysfunctionalOrientationtoTaskTestingandDependenceIntragroupConflictEmotionalResponsetotheDemandsoftheTaskOpenExchangeofRelevantInformationEmergenceofaSolutionDevelopmentofGroupCohesionFunctionalRolesEmergeDissolutionofGroupSTAGE1Orientation(Forming)STAGE5Termination(Adjourning)STAGE2Redefinition(Storming)STAGE3Coordination(Norming)STAGE4Formalization(Performing)GroupsChangeTheirWaysofWorkingatMidstream,FocusingMoreClearlyonTheirGoalandBecomingMoreEffectivePROJECTSTARTSTRANSITIONPROJECTDEADLINEPerformOriginalBehaviorsDropOldBehaviors

PerformNew,MoreEffectiveBehaviors0%50%100%TIMEEXPENDEDManagersShouldConsiderSixFactorsinChoosingGrouporIndividualDecisionMakingFactorGroupIndividualTypeofproblemortaskAcceptanceofdecisionQualityofthesolutionCharacteristicsofindividualsWhendiverseknowledgeandskillsarerequiredWhenacceptancebygroupmembersisvaluedWhentheinputofseveralgroupmemberscanim-provethesolutionWhengroupmembershaveexperiencedworkingtogetherWhenefficiencyisdesiredWhenacceptanceisnotimportantWhena“bestmember”canbeidentifiedWhenindividualscannotcollaborateManagersShouldConsiderSixFactorsinChoosingGrouporIndividualDecisionMaking(Cont.)FactorGroupIndividualOrganizationalcultureAmountoftimeavailableWhentheculturesupportsgroupproblemsolvingWhenrelativelymoretimeisavailableWhencultureiscompetitiveWhenrelativelylittletimeisavailableTable6-1bCohesiveness&ProductivityHighlycohesivegroupsaregenerallymoreproductiveCohesivenessreducestensionandprovidesasupportiveenvironmentGroupnormsplayanimportantroleincohesivenessSettingStandardsMissionValuesLogisticalArrangementsDecisionMakingConflictGroupmembershelptodevelop,follow,andenforcetherules,policies,andproceduresofthegroup.Suchrulesmayrangefromsimpleones,likebeginningontime,tomorecomplexpolicies,suchasprocedurestoarriveatconsensus.GroupCohesivenessTimeSpentTogetherSeverityofInitiationGroupSizeExternalThreatsPreviousSuccessesGroupthinkIrvingJanis’ModelAntecedentConditions+CohesivenessGroupthinkSymptoms

GroupthinkSymptomsLowProbabilityofSuccessGroupthinkCharacteristicsPowerfulSocialPressuresConcurrenceSeekingDehumanizingSolutionsSuppressionofDeviantThoughtsStressManagersShouldAvoidGroupthinkinMakingDecisionsWithGroupsSymptomDescriptionInvulnerabilityRationalizationMoralityStereotypingPressureMembersfeeltheyaresafeandprotectedfromdangers,ostracism,orineffectiveaction.Membersignorewarningsbyrationalizingtheirownorothers’behavior.Membersbelievetheiractionsareinherentlymoralandethical.Membersviewopponentsastrulyevilorstupidandthusunworthyoforincompetentatnegotiationsarounddifferencesinbeliefsorpositions.Memberspressureallindividualsinthegrouptoconformtothegroup’sdecision;theyallownoquestioningorarguingofalternatives.ManagersShouldAvoidGroupthinkinMakingDecisionsWithGroups(Cont.)SymptomDescriptionSelf-censorshipUnanimity“Mindguarding”Membersdonotquestionthegroup’sdecision.Membersperceivethateveryoneinthegrouphasthesameview.Membersmaykeepadverseinformationfromothermembersthatmightruintheirperceptionsofconsensusandtheeffectivedecision.Table6-2bMajorChangesinLeadershipOccurasTeamsBecomeSelf-DirectedSTAGE1STAGE2STAGE3STAGE4STAGE5Start-UpSateofConfusionLeader-CenteredTeamsTightlyFormedTeamsSelf-DirectedTeamsMangersCanUseThreePointsofLeveragetoEnhanceGroupTaskPerformancePointsofLeverageProcessCriteriaofEffectivenessGroupStructureOrganizationalContextCoachingandConsultationAmpleeffortSufficientknowl-edgeandskillMotivationalstruc-tureofgrouptaskGroupcompositionOrganizationalrewardsystemOrganizationaleducationsystemRemedyingcoor-dinationproblemsandbuildinggroupcommitmentRemedyinginap-propriate“weight-ing”ofmemberinputsandfoster-ingcross-trainingMangersCanUseThreePointsofLeveragetoEnhanceGroupTaskPerformance(Cont.)PointsofLeverageProcessCriteriaofEffectivenessGroupStructureOrganizationalContextCoachingandConsultationTask-appropriateperformancestrategiesGroupnormsthatregulatememberbehaviorandfosterscanningandplan-ningOrganizationalinformationsystemRemedyingimple-mentationprob-lemsandfosteringcreativityinstrat-egydeploymentTable6-3bDiverseTeamsOfferBothAdvantagesandDisadvantagesintheWorkplaceAdvantagesDisadvantagesIncreasednumberofperspectivesMultipleinterpretationslikelyGreateropennesstonewideasIncreasedflexibilityIncreasedcreativityImprovedproblemsolvingImprovedunderstandingofforeignemployeesorcustomersIncreasedambiguityIncreasedcomplexityIncreasedconfusionIncreasedmistrustPotentialmiscommunicationDifficultyinreachingagreementsDifficultyinreconcilingdiverseperspectivesDifficultyinreachingconsensusDecreasedgroupcohesionTable6-4DifferencesthatInfluencePerceptions,Which,inTurn,InfluenceIntergoupRelationsATTITUDINALSETSCompetitiveCooperativeSTATUSDIFFERENCESPERCEPTIONSINTERGROUPRELATIONSORIENTATIONGoalsTimeSocialRelationsofTasks&ConflictINDEPENDENCEDEPENDENCEINTERDEPENDENCETASKBTASKBTASKBTASKATASKATASKAMangersShouldBewareofTheseTypesofNegotiators,WhoDeliberatelyChooseaStyleThatUsesTheseParticularTacticsTypeMethodTheaggressive-openernegotiatorThelong-pausenegotiatorThemockingnegotiatorDiscomforttheothersidebymakingcuttingremarksabouttheirpreviousperformance,theirnumbers,theirunreasonableness,oranythingthatcanbeusedtoinsinuatethattheoppositionishardlyworthspeakingto.Listentotheothersidebutdonotanswertheirprop-ositionsimmediatelybutratherappeartogivethemconsiderablethoughtwiththeresultthatlongsilencesensueforthepurposeofgettingtheothertorevealasmuchoftheircaseaspossiblewithoutrevealingyourown.Mockandsneeratyouropposition’sproposalstogettheothersideso“uptight”thattheysaysomethingthattheywillregretlater.(Cont.)TypeMethodTheinterrogatorThecloak-of-reason-ablenessnegotiatorThedivide-and-conquernegotiatorMeetallproposalswithsearching,proddingquestionsthatarecouchedinsuchawaythattheoppositionfeelsthattheyhavenotthoroughlydonetheirhome-work.Challengeanyanswersinaconfrontingmannerandasktheoppositiontoexplainfurtherwhattheymean.Appeartobeagreeableandhelpfulwhilemakingimpossibledemandsforthepurposeofwinningthefriendshipandconfidenceoftheopposition.Producedissensionamongtheoppositionsothattheyhavetopaymoreattentiontotheirowninternaldis-agreementsratherthanthedisagreementswithyourside.Allywithonememberoftheteamandtrytoplayhimorheroffagainsttheothermembersoftheteam.(Cont.)TypeMethodTheBillyBunternegotiatorPretendtobeparticularlydenseand,bysodoing,exasperatetheoppositioninhopsthatatleastonememberoftheopposingteamwillrevealinformationashetriestofindincreasinglysimplewaystodescribeproposals,witheachproposalbeingelaboratedandlifiedsothatBillyBuntercanunderstandit.FourCategoriesofRolesGroupTaskRoles:roleswhichfacilitatetheselectionanddefinitionofacommonproblemandsolution.GroupBuildingandMaintenance:roleswhichincreasethefunctioningofthegroupasagroup.IndividualRoles:roleswhichareorientedtowardthesatisfactionofindividual’sneeds.CreativeRoles:roleswhichinvolveusingcreativitytoidentifypossiblesolutions.GroupTaskRolesTheInitiator-ContributorSuggestsorproposesnewideasmayincludethesuggestion:foranewgroupanewwaytoviewaproblemanewwaytoaddressaproblemwithinthegroupanewprocedureforthegroupanewwaytoorganizethegroupTheInformationSeekerSeeksclarificationofsuggestionsmadeintermsoftheirfactualadequacy,forauthoritativeinformationandfacetspertinenttotheproblembeingdiscussed.TheOpinionSeekerAsksnotprimarilyforthefactsofthecasebutforaclarificationofthevaluespertinenttowhatthegroupisundertakingorofvaluesinvolvedinasuggestionmadeorinalternativesuggestions.TheInformationGiverOffersfactsorgeneralizationswhichare“authoritative”orrelateshisownexperiencepertinentlytothegroupproblem.TheOpinionGiverStateshis/herbelieforopinionpertinentlytoasuggestionmadeortoalternativesuggestions.Theemphasisisonhis/herproposalofwhatshouldbecomethegroup’sviewofpertinentvalues,notprimarilyuponrelevantfactsorinformation.TheCoordinatorShowsorclarifiestherelationshipsamongvariousideasandsuggestionsTriestopullideasandsuggestionstogetherTriestocoordinatetheactivitiesofvariousmembersTheEvaluator-CriticSubjectstheaccomplishmentsofthegrouptosomestandardorsetofstandardsofgroupfunctioninginthecontextofthegrouptask.Myevaluatethe“practicality”,“logic”,“Facts”,or“procedures”TheEnergizerProdsthegrouptoactionordecision.Attemptstostimulateorarousethegrouptogreaterorhigherqualitywork.TheRecorderWritesdownsuggestions.Makesarecordofgroupdecisions(maybedownviamemory).Therecorderroleisthe“groupmemory.”GroupBuildingandMaintenanceRolesTheEncouragerPraises,agreeswithandacceptsthecontributionsofothers.Indicateswarmth,solidarityinattitudetowardothers.Offerscommendationandpraiseinvariouswaysandindicatesacceptanceofothers,TheHarmonizerMediatesthedifferencesbetweenmembersAttemptstoreconciledisagreements.Relievestensioninconflictsituations.TheCompromiserOperatesfromwithinaconflictinwhichhis/herideasorpositionisinvolved.Mayoffercompromisebyyieldingstatus,admittingerror,orbycoming“halfway”inmeetinganother.TheGate-Keeper&ExpediterAttemptstokeepcommunicationopenbyfacilitatingparticipationofothers.Proposesregulationoftheflowofcommunication.TheFollowerGoesalongwiththemovementofthegroup.Passivelyacceptstheideasofothers.Servesasanaudienceforothersinthegroupaswellasforgroupdiscussionanddecision.Attemptsbyindividualstosatisfypersonalneeds.Numeroustypes-fromSociologyandPsychology.IndividualRolesTheMonopolistDef:Onewhochattersonincessantlyduetoanxietywhensilent.Effect:Groupgetsconcerned,thenfrustratedandangry.Maybeafraidtoconfrontbecausethentheymustfillthevoid.Help-RejectingComplainerDef.:requestshelpthanrejects;takesproblemininsolvabilityofproblems;blamesauthority,conflictedaboutdependencyfeelinghelplessanddistrusting.Effects:seenasgreedyanduserofgroupenergy;membersbecomebored,confused,irritatedandfrustrated.Self-RighteousMoralistDef.:strongneedtoberight.Demonstratessuperiorityviapoiseandunconcernedaboutbeingliked.Deepunderlyingshame.Effect:mobilizessomuchresentmentthatmaybeforcedoutofthegroup.CreativeGroupRolesIdeaGeneratorLookfornewwaystodothings.Tendtofocusonlyonideasandconcepts.Areresultdriven.DesignersSeethebigpicture.Provideguidanceandtools.Defineperformancestandards.Identifyresourcesneededtocompleteprojects.PromotersVisualizeendresult.Optimistic.Promoteideasandgivemomentum.ManagersCanUseThisChecklisttoDiagnosetheRolesPlayedbyEachTeamMemberTASKORIENTEDMAINTENANCEINDIVIDUALAgendaSetterAnalyzerCoordinatorEvaluatorInformationGiverInformationSeekerIntuitorOtherEncouragerFollowerGatekeeperGroupObserverHarmonizerStandardSetterOtherAvoiderBlockerClownDominatorRecognitionSeekerOtherGroupNormsAcceptablestandardsofbehavior,thataresharedbythegroup’smembers.FormalNormsexplicitlystatedInformalNormshabitbecomesnormCommonClassesofNormsPerformancerelatedprocessesAppearancefactorsInformalsocialarrangementsAllocationofresourcesBehaviorscanbecomeNormsCriticaleventsingroup’shistoryPrimacyCarry-overfrompastsituationsExplicitstatementsmadebyagroupsmemberReasonsabehaviormightbecomea“norm”Tofacilitatethegroup’ssurvival.Ifitincreasesthepredictabilityofgroupmembers’behaviors.Toreduceembarrassinginterpersonalproblemsforgroupmembers.Toallowmemberstoexpresscentralvaluesofthegroup.Toclarifywhatisdistinctiveaboutthegroup’sidentity.StatusSociallydefinedpositionorrankgiventogroupsorgroupmembersbyothers“Inthestatushierarchyoflife,nothingdoesn’tmatter.”Exles:titles,relationships,pay&benefits,workschedules,officeamenitiesGroupSizeGroupswithanoddnumbertendtoperformbetterGroupsof5-7seemtobea“happymedium”SmallergroupsfasterLargergroupsbetterdecisions“socialloafing”EliminatingSocialLoafingMakeeachperformeridentifiable.PublicPostingInterestingWorkRewardsforContributionsPunishmentThreatsSatisfactionisHigherSmallgroupsUniformstatusandnormsamonggroupmembersUsehigherlevelskillsMeaningfulworkSignificanteffectofoutcomesPositivefeedbackWhengroupsexperiencesubstantialautonomyPositiveBehaviorsMaking“I”statementssuchas“Ifeel,”“Ithink,”“Ineed.”Activelylisteningtopromotetwo-waycommunication.Respectingothers’needs,feelings,andrightsbyallowingotherstodisagree.Sharinginformationandexpertiseopenly.NegativeBehaviorsUnwillingnesstosetasidepersonalagendas.Aggressivelyusing“always”or“never”tointimidateothers.Displayinganegativeattitude.Judgingothers.Wantingtobeastarratherthanpartoftheprocess.MatureGroupCharacteristicsPurposeandMissionMaybeassignedormayemergefromthegroupGroupoftenquestions,reexamines,&modifiesmission&purposeMissionconvertedintospecificagenda,cleargoals,&asetofcriticalsuccessfactorsMatureGroupCharacteristicsBehavioralNorms-well-understoodstandardsofbehaviorwithinagroupFormal&writtenGroundrulesformeetingsInformalbutunderstoodIntra-groupsocializingDresscodesMatureGroupCharacteristicsGroupcohesion-interpersonalattractionbindinggroupmemberstogetherEnablesgroupstoexerciseeffectivecontroloverthemembersGroupswithhighcohesivenessdemonstratelowertension&anxietydemonstratelessvariationinproductivitydemonstratebettermembersatisfaction,commitment&communicationCohesiveness&

Work-RelatedTensionGroupCohesivenessfromlowtohigh7165265571912Numberofgroups“Doesyourworkevermakeyoujumpyornervous?”FromS.E.Seashore,GroupCohesivenessintheIndustrialWorkForce,1954.ResearchconductedbyStanleyE.SeashoreattheInstituteforSocialResearch,UniversityofMichigan.Reprintedbypermission.MatureGroupCharacteristicsStatusstructure-thesetofauthority&taskrelationsamongagroup’smembersHierarchicaloregalitarianOftenleadershipissharedDiversitystylesContributorCollaboratorCommunicatorChallengerData/InfoMissionFacilitatorDevil’sadvocateGoodwhenperformingcomplicated,complex,inter-relatedand/ormorevoluminousworkthanonepersoncanhandleGoodwhenknowledge,talent,skills,&abilitiesaredispersedacrossorganizationalmembersEmpowerment&collaboration;notpower&competitionWhyTeams?QualityCircles&TeamsQualitycircles(QC)-asmallgroupofemployeeswhoworkvoluntarilyoncompanytime,typicallyonehourperweek,toaddresswork-relatedproblemsQC’sdealwithsubstantiveissuesDonotrequirefinaldecisionauthorityQC’sneedperiodicreenergizingQualityteam-ateamthatispartofanorganization’sstructure&isempoweredtoactonitsdecisionsregardingproduct&qualityserviceSocialBenefitsofTeamsPsychologicalintimacy-emotional&psychologicalclosenesstootherteamorgroupmembersIntegratedintimacy-closenessachievedthroughtasks&activitiesTeamTaskFunctionsTaskfunctions-thoseactivitiesdirectlyrelatedtotheeffectivecompletionoftheteam’sworkInitiateactivitiesDiagnoseproblemsCoordinateactivitiesElaborateconceptsSummarizeideasEvaluateef