(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

实用标准文案Chapter1:Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.(Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butitstudieslanguageingeneral)2.Generallinguistics:普通语言学Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics.(languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets)3.Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.4.descriptive(描述性):Alinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.5.prescriptive(规定性):Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviors.i.e.whattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnottosay.6.synchronic(共时语言学):thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointoftimeinhiatory7.diachronic(历时语言学:thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtime3)speech（口语）Writing（书面语）Thesethetwomediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.(speechispriortowriting)8.langue(语言):referstoabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofthespeechcommunity.Itisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.Suchas:InEnglishsentencemusthavesubjectandpredicate.9.parole(言语referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Itisconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.(Saussure)10.competence(语言能力):theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage11.performance(语言应用):theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.(Chomsky)traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics1.linguisticsisdescriptive,whiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive2.modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewriter.3.alsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoalatin-basedframework.Functionsoflanguage.精彩文档实用标准文案1.thedescriptivefunction.2.theexpressivefunction3.thesocialfunctionChapter2:Phonology音系学thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;phoneticsitisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurinthewor.d’slanguagesThethreebranchesofphonetics(1).Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)(longesthistory)(2.)Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acousticphonetics(声学语音学）2.Speechorgans:threeimportantareas⑴Pharyngealcavity咽腔----thethroat;⑵Theoralcavity口腔----themouth;⑶Nasalcavity–鼻腔---thenose.Theprinciplesourcesuchmodificationsisthetongue.Thetongueisthemostflexible.InternationalPhoneticAlphabet[IPA]:thebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription宽式音标.Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.Narrowtranscription窄式音标Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.Aspiratedandunaspiratedphonology:音系学Itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.1).4.Phone,phoneme,allophoneAphone音素isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].Aphoneme音位isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].Allophones音素变体----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments精彩文档实用标准文案sequentialrule,⑴Sequentialrule):rulegoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.⑵Assimilationrule:ruleassimilatingonesoundtoanotherbycopyingfeaturesofsequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.⑶Deletionrule（省略规则）:rulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.6.Suprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）⑴StressWordstressandsentencestress⑵Tone声调Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.⑶Intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)thefrise-falltone(notfrequentlyused)Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.Chapter3:MorphologyMorphology形态学:referstothethestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformedMorpheme词素:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Freemorpheme:amorphemecanbeawordbyitself.Boundmorpheme.:amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotherone.Allmorphs词素变体:thevariantformsofamorphemeChapter4:SyntaxSyntax句法学:Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Word-levelcategories1,Majorlexicalcategories2.minorlexicalcategories精彩文档实用标准文案Todetermineawordscategorie,threecriteraareusuallyemployed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacentainwordcategorycomplementizerswordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementcomplementclausethesentenceintroducedbythecmomplementizersD-structure:formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheadssubcategorizationpropertiesS-structure:correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsformappropriatetransformation.Chapter5:SemanticsSemantics:语义学canbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Thenamingtheory(命名论)Oldestnotionsconceringmeaning.mostprimitiveone.ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2）Theconceptualistview（意念论）Itholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalin-guisticformandwhatitrefersto.Intheinterpretationofmeaning,theyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:②Situationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituation③Linguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.④Forexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.4)Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.②ThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_________r--------s_________R3.Senseandreference①Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.②Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.4.Majorsenserelations（同义关系）Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同义词精彩文档实用标准文案completesynonyms,i.e.synonymythataremutuallysubstitutableunderallcircumstances,arerare（同音/同形异义）Homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,（1)Homophones（同音异义）:Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarecalledhomophones.e.g.rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.e.g.tearv./tearn.（3)Complete同音同形异义):Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.e.g.fastv./fastadj.;scalev./scale.n.（下义关系）Hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.eg.superordinate:flowerhyponyms:rose,tulip,carnation,lily（反义关系）thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning1)Gradableantonyms（等级反义词）----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short…2)Complementaryantonyms（互补反义词）----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female…3)Relationalopposites（关系反义词）----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below…2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:1.grammaticalmeaning2.semanticmeaning,e.g.selectionalrestrictions.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyruleseg.constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothersPredicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).Chapter6:Pragmatics1).Pragmatics:语用学thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.精彩文档实用标准文案Pragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning.WhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticiswhetherthecontextofuseisconsideredinthestudyofmeaningIfitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.⑴Austin’snewmodelofspeechactsUtterancemeaning:themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.CooperativePrinciple(CD):PaulGrice.Hisideaisthattoconversewitheachother,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.3）Principleofconversation(PaulGrice)Themaximofquantity（数量准则）Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).（使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。）Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.（不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。）hemaximofquality（质量准则）Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.（不要说自己认为不真实的话。）Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.（不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。）Themaximofrelation（关联准则）Berelevant.（说话要贴切。）Themaximofmanner（方式准则）Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity)（说话要简短，避免累赘。）Beorderly.（说话要有条理。）Chapter8Sociolinguistics社会语言学Thesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheuseoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.精彩文档实用标准文案speechvariety言语变体referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Linguisticrepertoire语言库thetotalityoflinguisticvarietiespossessedbyanindividualconstituteshislinguisticrepertoire.Halliday’sregisteroryaccordingtoHalliday(British),“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Register语域thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasapprppriatetothetypeofsituationisaRegisterfieldofdiscourse,话语范围Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.tenorofdiscourse,话语意旨Itreferstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestionmodeofdiscourse话语方式ItreferstothemeansofcommunicationFivestagesofformalityIntimateCasualConsultativeFormalFrozenBilingualism双语现象Insomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.diglossiaAccordingtoFerguson(1959),referstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.chapter9culture文化inabroadsense,reflectsatotalwayoflifeofapeopleinacommunity.inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms.therelationoflanguagetocultureisthatofparttowhole.discoursecommunities话语社会thecommonwaysinwhichmembersofthesocialgroupusesimilarlanguagetomeettheirneeds.linguisticrelativity语言相对性toputitsimply,differentlanguageofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,andsotheythinkandspeakdifferentlyanlinguisticsignmaysimultaneouslyhaveadenotativmeanings.e,connotativemeanings.,iconicmeanings.threeformsof