2022年语言学第三章笔记和习题

..精选文档精选文档.精选文档Chapter3MorphologyLexiconisthecollectionofallthewordsofalanguage.Itissynonymouswith“vocabulary〞.Wordsarethefocusofthestudyoflexicon,sotheemphasisofthischapterfallsuponwords,i.e.,theanalysisandcreationofwords.Linguistsdefinethewordasthesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.ThefeaturesofwordWordismeaningful;wordisagrammaticalunit;wordcanbeusedindependently;wordisrelativelystableanduninterruptible.Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whereaslexiconisacomponentoflanguageinsteadofabranchoflinguistics.OpenclasswordandclosedclasswordOpenclasswords----contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amemberoftheBeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet,“做秀，时装秀…〞inChinese.Closedclasswords----grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.---Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness7-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismMorph:whenpeoplewishtodistinguishthesoundofamorphemefromtheentiremorpheme,theymaysuedtheterm.ItisthephoneticrealizationofamorphemeAllomorph:Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.Itisthephoneticvariantofamorpheme.Somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat〞,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesomevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyaresaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:map----maps[s]dog----dogs[z]watch----watches[iz]mouse----mice[ai]ox----oxen[n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.AffixPrefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.Root:Therootconstitutesthecoreofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentofitsmeaning.Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Arootmaybefreeorbound(suchasmit,tain,cur,ceive).Anaffixisnaturallybound.Freemorpheme&boundmorphemeFreemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s〞in“dogs〞,“al〞in“national〞,“dis-〞in“disclose〞,“ed〞in“recorded〞,etc.Somemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemeDerivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablesapplescarsb)person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/John’sInflectionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.Englishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Somelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.àDerivationalmorphemes----àaffix(suffix,infix,prefix)+rootàInflectionalmorphemesà1111typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-’s,-s/es[possessive;plural]Verb+-s/es,-ing,-ed,-ed/-en[3rdpersonsingular;presentparticiple;pasttense,pastparticiple]Adj+-er,-est[comparative;superlative]InflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofawordInflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory;DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root(stem)+derivational+inflectionalConclusion:classificationofmorphemesMorphemesFreemorphemesBoundmorphemesInflexionalDerivational:affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphologicalrulesTherulesthatgoverntheformationofwords,e.g.the“un-+----〞rule.unfairunthinkableunacceptable…Compoundingisanotherwaytoformnewwords,e.g.landladyrainbowundertake…Theprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.CompoundsNouncompoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)Verbcompoundsbrainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)Adjectivecompoundsmaneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)Prepositioncompoundsinto(P+P)throughout(P+P)SomepointsaboutcompoundsWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black…Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket…Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouse…Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Formationofnewwords1.Inflection:itisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase.2.DerivationDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.CompoundingCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.Incompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.Themeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.4.Conversion(invention)Conversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.5.Clipping(abbreviations)front,back,frontandbackClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.ClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.Someclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.BlendingBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike〞(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).7.Back-formationBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.8.AcronymsAcronymsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.9.EponymsEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.CoinageCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.Thiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.Borrowing:EnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenitsvocabularybyBorrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess,suchas“atom,electricity〞fromGreek,“cancer,tumour〞fromLatin,“violin,pizza〞fromItalian.12.Onomatopoeia:itisawayofcreatingwordsbyimitatingthesoundsoftheoutsideworld.SupplementaryExercisesChapter3：Morphology

I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:

1.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.

2.Wordsarethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguage.

3.Justasaphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.

4.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitsthatcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesarefreemorphemes.

5.Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes.

6.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.

7.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem,whichcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.

8.Prefixesusuallymodifythepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,notthemeaningofit.

9.Therearerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.Therefore,wordsformedaccordingtothemorphologicalrulesareacceptablewords.

10.Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.

II.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:

11.M____isthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.

12.Theaffix“-ish〞inthewordboyishconveysag____meaning.

13.B___________morphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.

14.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalaffixesandd__________affixes.

15.D________affixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreatewords.

16.As______isaddedtotheendofstemstomodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordanditmaycasechangeitspartofspeech.

17.C__________isthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.

18.Therulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewwordarecalledm___________rules.

19.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,d_______________canbeviewedastheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords.

20.As______canbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitselftowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.

III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:

21.

Themorpheme“vision〞inthecommonword“television〞isa(n)______.

A.boundmorpheme

B.boundform

C.inflectionalmorpheme

D.freemorpheme22.Thecompoundword“bookstore〞istheplacewherebooksaresold.Thisindicatesthatthemeaningofacompound

__________.

A.

isthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents

B.

canalwaysbeworkedoutbylookingatthemeaningsofmorphemes

C.

isthesameasthemeaningofafreephrase.

D.

Noneoftheabove.

23.Thepartofspeechofthecompoundsisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechof__________.

A.thefirstelement

B.thesecondelement

C.eitherthefirstorthesecondelement

D.boththefirstandthesecondelements.

24._______arethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.

A.Free

morphemes

B.Boundmorphemes

C.Boundwords

D.Words

25._________isabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.

A.Syntax

B.Grammar

C.Morphology

D.Morpheme

26.

Themeaningcarriedbytheinflectionalmorphemeis_______.

A.lexical

B.morphemic

C.grammatical

D.semantic

27.

Boundmorphemesarethosethat___________.

A.

havetobeusedindependently

B.

cannotbecombinedwithothermorphemes

C.

caneitherbefreeorbound

D.

havetobecombinedwithothermorphemes.

28.

____modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.

A.Prefixes

B.Suffixes

C.Roots

D.Affixes

29.

_________areoftenthoughttobethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguagebythelinguists.

A.Words

B.Morphemes

C.Phonemes

D.Sentences30.

“-s〞intheword“books〞is

_______.

A.aderivativeaffix

B.astem

C.aninflectionalaffix

D.aroot

IV.Definethefollowingterms:

31.morphology

32.inflectionalmorphology

33.derivationalmorphology

34.morpheme

35.freemorpheme

36.boundmorpheme

37.root

38.affix

39.prefix

40.suffix

41.derivation

42.Compounding

V.Answerthefollowingquestions:

43.

WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds?

44.

Discussthetypesofmorphemeswithexamples.

SuggestedanswerstosupplementaryexercisesChapter3

MorphologyIV.Definethefollowingterms:

31.

Morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.

32.

inflectionalmorphology:Theinflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflections

33.derivationalmorphology:Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.

34.

Morpheme:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.35.

freemorpheme:Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.

36.

boundmorpheme:Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.

37.

Root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.

38.

Affix:Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories,whilederivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.

39.

Prefix:Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,buttheyusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.

40.

Suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.

41.

Derivation