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Chapter6MotivationinPracticeCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Chapter6Copyright©2011PearLearningObjectivesDiscusshowtotiepaytoperformanceonproductionjobsandthedifficultiesofwageincentiveplans.Explainhowtotiepaytoperformanceonwhite-collarjobsandthedifficultiesofmeritpayplans.Understandhowtousepaytomotivateteamwork.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectivesDiscusshowLearningObjectives(continued)4. DescribethedetailsoftheJobCharacteristicsModel.Discussthemotivationalpropertiesofjobenrichment.Discussrecentdevelopmentsinjobdesignanddescribeworkdesigncharacteristics.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectives(continuedLearningObjectives(continued)7. UnderstandtheconnectionbetweengoalsettingandManagementbyObjectives.8. Explainhowalternativeworkschedulesrespectemployeediversity.9. Describethefactorsthatorganizationsshouldconsiderwhenchoosingmotivationalpractices.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectives(continuedMoneyasaMotivator

Howimportantispayforyou?Employeesandmanagersseriouslyunderestimatetheimportanceofpayasamotivator.Howeffectiveispayasamotivator?Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.MoneyasaMotivatorHowimporMoneyasaMotivator

(continued)Paycansatisfylower-levelneedsaswellassocial,self-esteem,andself-actualizationneedssoitshouldbeagoodpotentialmotivator.Ifpaycansatisfyavarietyofneeds,itshouldbehighlyvalentanditshouldbeagoodmotivatortotheextentthatitisclearlytiedtoperformance.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.MoneyasaMotivator(continueMoneyasaMotivator(continued)Financialincentivesandpay-for-performanceplanshavebeenfoundtoincreaseperformanceandlowerturnover.Paymaywellbethemostimportantandeffectivemotivatorofperformance.Theabilitytoearnmoneyforoutstandingperformanceisacompetitiveadvantageforattracting,motivating,andretainingemployees.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.MoneyasaMotivator(continueLinkingPaytoPerformanceonProductionJobsTheprototypeofallschemestolinkpaytoperformanceonproductionjobsispiece-rate.Piece-ratereferstoapaysysteminwhichindividualworkersarepaidacertainsumofmoneyforeachunitofproductiontheycomplete.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LinkingPaytoPerformanceonLinkingPaytoPerformanceonProductionJobs(continued)Variousschemestolinkpaytoperformanceonproductionjobsarecalledwageincentiveplans.Theintroductionofwageincentivesusuallyleadstosubstantialincreasesinproductivity.OneofthebestexamplesofthesuccessfuluseofawageincentiveplanistheLincolnElectricCompany.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LinkingPaytoPerformanceonPotentialProblemswithWageIncentivesLoweredQuality:Wageincentivescanincreaseproductivityattheexpenseofquality.DifferentialOpportunity:Athreattotheestablishmentofwageincentivesexistswhenworkershavedifferentialopportunitiestoproduceatahighlevel.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PotentialProblemswithWageIPotentialProblemswithWageIncentives(continued)ReducedCooperation:Wageincentivesthatrewardindividualproductivitymightdecreasecooperationamongworkers.IncompatibleJobDesign:Thewayjobsaredesignedcanmakeitverydifficulttoimplementwageincentives.RestrictionofProductivity:Amajorpsychologicalimpedimenttotheuseofwageincentivesisthetendencyforworkerstorestrictproductivity.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PotentialProblemswithWageIRestrictionofProductivityTheartificiallimitationofworkoutputthatcanoccurunderwageincentiveplans.Workerscometoaninformalagreementaboutwhatconstitutesafairday’swork.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.RestrictionofProductivityTheHypotheticalProductivityDistributionsCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.HypotheticalProductivityDistReasonsforRestrictionofProductivityEmployeesfeelthatincreasedproductivityduetotheincentivewillleadtoreductionsintheworkforce.Employeesfearthatiftheyproduceatanespeciallyhighlevel,anemployerwillreducetherateofpaymenttocutlabourcosts.Restrictionislesslikelywhenaclimateoftrustandahistoryofgoodrelationsexistbetweenemployeesandmanagement.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ReasonsforRestrictionofProLinkingPaytoPerformanceonWhite-CollarJobsObjectiveindicatorsofindividualperformanceonwhite-collarjobsareoftendifficulttofind.Performanceinmanysuchjobsisoftenevaluatedbythesubjectivejudgmentofanindividual’smanager.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LinkingPaytoPerformanceonLinkingPaytoPerformanceonWhite-CollarJobs(continued)Meritpayplansaresystemsthatattempttolinkpaytoperformanceonwhite-collarjobs.Managersevaluatetheperformanceofemployeesandthenrecommendsomeamountofmeritpayberewarded.Althoughmeritpaycanimproveperformance,manymeritpaysystemsareineffective.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LinkingPaytoPerformanceonLinkingPaytoPerformanceonWhite-CollarJobs(continued)Individualswhoworkundersuchasystemoftendonotseealinkbetweentheirjobperformanceandpay.Thereisalsoevidencethatpayisnotrelatedtoperformanceundersomemeritpayplans.Inmostorganizations,seniority,numberofemployees,andjoblevelaccountformorevariationinpaythanperformancedoes.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LinkingPaytoPerformanceonPotentialProblemswithMeritPayPlansLowDiscrimination:Managersmightbeunableorunwillingtodiscriminatebetweengoodperformersandpoorperformers.SmallIncreases:Sometimesmeritincreasesaretoosmalltobeeffectivemotivators.Somefirmshavereplacedconventionalmeritpaywithalumpsumbonusthatispaidoutallatonetimeandnotbuiltintobasepay.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PotentialProblemswithMeritPotentialProblemswithMeritPayPlans(continued)PaySecrecy:Extremesecrecythatsurroundssalariesinmostorganizations.Paysecrecycanseverelydamagethemotivationalimpactofawell-designedmeritplan.Managersoverestimatethepayoftheiremployeesandtheirpeersandunderestimatethepayoftheirsuperiors.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PotentialProblemswithMeritAManager’sEstimatesofPayEarnedbyBoss,Peers,andSubordinatesCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.AManager’sEstimatesofPayEPotentialProblemswithMeritPayPlans(continued)Thesetendenciesreducesatisfactionwithpay,damageperceptionsofthelinkagebetweenperformanceandrewards,andreducethevalenceofpromotiontoahigherlevelofmanagement.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PotentialProblemswithMeritUsingPaytoMotivateTeamworkSomefirmshaveeitherreplacedorsupplementedindividualincentivepaywithplansdesignedtofostermorecooperationandteamwork.Organizationshavetochoosepayplansthatsupporttheirstrategicneeds.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.UsingPaytoMotivateTeamworkPayPlanstoMotivateTeamworkProfitsharingEmployeestockownershipplans(ESOPs)GainsharingSkill-basedpayCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PayPlanstoMotivateTeamworkProfitSharingThereturnofsomecompanyprofittoemployeesintheformofacashbonusoraretirementsupplement.Oneofthemostcommonlyusedgroup-orientedincentivesystems.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ProfitSharingThereturnofsoProfitSharing(continued)Amajorproblemisthatmanyfactorsbeyondthecontroloftheworkforcecanaffectprofitsnomatterhowwellpeopleperformtheirjobs.Inalargefirm,itisdifficulttoseetheimpactofone’sownactionsonprofits.Worksbestinsmallfirmsthatregularlyturnaprofit.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ProfitSharing(continued)AmaEmployeeStockOwnershipPlans(ESOPs)Incentiveplansthatallowemployeestoownasetamountofacompany’ssharesandprovideemployeeswithastakeinthecompany’sfutureearningsandsuccess.Alignsemployees’goalsandinterestswiththoseoftheorganizationandcreatesasenseoflegalandpsychologicalownership.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.EmployeeStockOwnershipPlansEmployeeStockOwnershipPlans(ESOPs)(continued)SomeevidencethatESOPsimproveemployeeretentionandprofitability.Theyworkbestinsmallorganizationsthatregularlymakeaprofit.Theylosetheirmotivationalpotentialinaweakeconomywhenacompany’ssharepricegoesdown.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.EmployeeStockOwnershipPlansGainsharingAgrouppayincentiveplanbasedonproductivityorperformanceimprovementsoverwhichtheworkforcehassomecontrol.Suchplansoftenincludereductionsinthecostoflabour,material,orsupplies.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.GainsharingAgrouppayincentiGainsharing(continued)Whenmeasuredcostsdecrease,thecompanypaysamonthlybonusaccordingtoapredeterminedformulathatsharesthis“gain”betweenemployeesandthefirm.ThemostcommongainsharingplanistheScanlonPlan.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Gainsharing(continued)WhenmeTheScanlonPlanStressesparticipatorymanagementandjointproblemsolvingbetweenemployeesandmanagers,andusesthepaysystemtorewardemployeesforthiscooperativebehaviour.Payisusedtoaligncompanyandemployeegoals.ProductivityimprovementshavebeenshowntofollowtheintroductionofScanlon-typeplans.Perceptionthattheplanisfairiscritical.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheScanlonPlanStressespartiSkill-BasedPayAsysteminwhichemployeesarepaidaccordingtothenumberofjobskillstheyhaveacquired.Theideaistomotivateemployeestolearnawidevarietyofskillsandworktasks.Themoreskillsthatareacquired,thehighertheperson’spay.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Skill-BasedPayAsysteminwhiSkill-BasedPay(continued)Encouragesemployeeflexibilityintaskassignmentsandprovidesemployeeswithabroaderpictureoftheworkprocess.Especiallyusefulforself-managedteamsandinflexiblemanufacturing.Trainingcostscanbehigh.Havebeenfoundtoimproveproductivity,lowerlabourcosts,andreducetheamountofscrap.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Skill-BasedPay(continued)EncJobDesignasaMotivatorThegoalofjobdesignistoidentifythecharacteristicsthatmakesometasksmoremotivatingthanothersandtocapturethesecharacteristicsinthedesignofjobs.Anattempttocapitalizeonintrinsicmotivation.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobDesignasaMotivatorThegTraditionalViewsofJobDesignFromtheadventoftheIndustrialRevolutionuntilthe1960s,theprevailingphilosophyregardingthedesignofmostnon-managerialjobswasjobsimplification.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TraditionalViewsofJobDesigScientificManagementThezenithofjobsimplificationoccurredintheearly1990swithTaylor’sprinciplesofScientificManagementthatadvocated:Extremedivisionoflabourandspecialization.Carefulstandardizationandregulationofworkactivitiesandrestpauses.Themotivationalstrategiesconsistedofclosesupervisionandpiece-ratepay.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ScientificManagementThezenitJobScopeandMotivationJobscopereferstothebreadthanddepthofajob.Breadthreferstothenumberofdifferentactivitiesperformedonthejob.Depthreferstothedegreeofdiscretionorcontroltheworkerhasoverhowthesetasksareperformed.Jobsthathavegreatbreadthanddeptharecalledhigh-scopejobs.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobScopeandMotivationJobscJobScopeasaFunctionofJobDepthandJobBreadthCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobScopeasaFunctionofJobJobScopeandMotivation(continued)Traditionalviewsofjobdesignwereattemptstoconstructlow-scopejobsinwhichworkersspecializedinasingletask.High-scopejobsprovidemoreintrinsicmotivationthanlow-scopejobs.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobScopeandMotivation(contStretchAssignmentsOnewaytoincreasethescopeofajobistoassignemployeesstretchassignments.Theyprovideemployeeschallengingopportunitiestobroadentheirskillsbyworkingonavarietyoftaskswithnewresponsibilities.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.StretchAssignmentsOnewaytoJobRotationAnotherapproachforincreasingthescopeofanindividual’sjobisjobrotation.Employeesarerotatedtodifferenttasksandjobsinanorganization.Itcaninvolveworkingindifferentfunctionalareasanddepartments.Itcanprovideavarietyofchallengingassignments,developnewskillsandexpertise,andprepareemployeesforfutureroles.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobRotationAnotherapproachfTheJobCharacteristicsModelTheJobCharacteristicsModelproposesthatthereareseveral“core”jobcharacteristicsthathaveacertainpsychologicalimpactonworkers.Thepsychologicalstatesinducedbythenatureofthejobleadtocertainoutcomes.Severalfactorscalledmoderatorsinfluencetheextenttowhichtheserelationshipsholdtrue.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheJobCharacteristicsModelTTheJobCharacteristicsModel

Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheJobCharacteristicsModelCoreJobCharacteristicsTherearefivecorejobcharacteristicsthathaveparticularlystrongpotentialtoaffectworkermotivation.Theyare:SkillvarietyTaskidentityTasksignificanceAutonomyJobfeedbackCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.CoreJobCharacteristicsThereSkillVarietyThe

opportunitytodoavarietyofjobactivitiesusingvariousskillsandtalents.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.SkillVarietyTheopportunitytAutonomyThefreedomtoscheduleone’sownworkactivitiesanddecideworkprocedures.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.AutonomyThefreedomtoschedulTaskSignificanceTheimpactthatajobhasonotherpeople.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TaskSignificanceTheimpactthTaskIdentityTheextenttowhichajobinvolvesdoingacompletepieceofwork,frombeginningtoend.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TaskIdentityTheextenttowhiFeedbackInformationabouttheeffectivenessofone’sworkperformance.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.FeedbackInformationabouttheJobDiagnosticSurveyTheJobDiagnosticSurvey(JDS)isaquestionnairetomeasurethecorejobcharacteristics.Individualsreporttheamountofthevariouscorejobcharacteristicscontainedintheirjobs.Anoverallmeasureofthemotivatingpotentialofajobcanbecalculatedfromscoresonthecorejobcharacteristics.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobDiagnosticSurveyTheJobDMotivatingPotentialScoreThemotivatingpotentialscore(MPS)ofajobiscalculatedusingthefollowingformula:SkillTaskTaskMPS=variety+identity+significancexAutonomyxFeedback 3 Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.MotivatingPotentialScoreTheJobsthatarehigheronthecorejobcharacteristicsaremoreinstrinsicallymotivatingbecauseoftheireffectonthreepsychologicalstates:ExperiencedmeaningfulnessoftheworkExperiencedresponsibilityfortheoutcomesoftheworkKnowledgeoftheactualresultsoftheworkactivitiesCriticalPsychologicalStatesCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobsthatarehigheronthecoJobsthatarehighonskillvariety,tasksignificance,andtaskidentityareperceivedasmoremeaningful.Jobsthatarehighonautonomyprovideforgreaterpersonalresponsibilityforworkoutcomes.Jobsthatarehighonperformancefeedbackprovideworkerswithknowledgeoftheresultsoftheirworkactivities.CriticalPsychologicalStates(continued)Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobsthatarehighonskillvaOutcomesThepresenceofthecriticalpsychologicalstatesleadstoanumberofoutcomesthatarerelevanttoboththeindividualandtheorganization:HighintrinsicmotivationHigh-qualityproductivitySatisfactionwithhigher-orderneedsGeneralsatisfactionwiththejobReducedabsenteeismandturnoverCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.OutcomesThepresenceofthecrModeratorsJobsthatarehighinmotivatingpotentialdonotalwaysleadtofavourableoutcomes.Threemoderatororcontingencyvariablesintervenebetweenjobcharacteristicsandoutcomes.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ModeratorsJobsthatarehighiModerators(continued)Job-relevantknowledgeandskilloftheworker.Growthneedstrengthwhichreferstotheextenttowhichpeopledesiretoachievehigher-orderneedsatisfactionbyperformingtheirjobs.Workerswhoaredissatisfiedwiththecontextfactorsthatsurroundtheirjob(e.g.,pay)willbelessresponsivetochallengingwork.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Moderators(continued)Job-releResearchEvidenceWorkersrespondmorefavourablytojobsthatarehigherinmotivatingpotential.Allfivejobcharacteristicsarerelatedtoworkoutcomes.Amongthepsychologicalstates,strongestsupportforexperiencedmeaningfulness.Evidencefortheroleofgrowthneedsandcontextsatisfactionisweakorcontradictory.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchEvidenceWorkersrespoJobEnrichmentThedesignofjobstoenhanceintrinsicmotivation,qualityofworkinglife,andjobinvolvement.Jobenrichmentinvolvesincreasingthemotivatingpotentialofjobsviathearrangementoftheircorejobcharacteristics.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobEnrichmentThedesignofjoJobInvolvementAcognitivestateofpsychologicalidentificationwithone’sjobandtheimportanceofworktoone’stotalself-image.Allofthecorejobcharacteristicsarepositivelyrelatedtojobinvolvement.Employeeswhoaremoreinvolvedintheirjobhavehigherjobsatisfactionandorganizationalcommitment,andarelesslikelytoconsiderleavingtheirorganization.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobInvolvementAcognitivestaJobEnrichmentProceduresManyjobenrichmentschemesincludethefollowing:CombiningtasksEstablishingexternalclientrelationshipsEstablishinginternalclientrelationshipsReducingsupervisionorrelianceonothersFormingworkteamsMakingfeedbackmoredirectCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobEnrichmentProceduresManyCombiningTasksThisinvolvesassigningtasksthatmightbeperformedbydifferentworkerstoasingleindividual.Shouldincreasethevarietyofskillsemployedandmightcontributetotaskidentity.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.CombiningTasksThisinvolvesaEstablishingExternalClientRelationshipsThisinvolvesputtingemployeesintouchwithpeopleoutsidetheorganizationwhodependontheirproductsorservices.Mightinvolvetheuseofnewinterpersonalskills,increasetheidentityandsignificanceofthejob,andincreasefeedbackaboutone’sperformance.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.EstablishingExternalClientREstablishingInternalClientRelationshipsThisinvolvesputtingemployeesintouchwithpeoplewhodependontheirproductsandserviceswithintheorganization.Advantagesaresimilartothosethatresultfromestablishingexternalclientrelationships.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.EstablishingInternalClientRReducingSupervisionorRelianceonOthersThisincreasestheautonomyorcontrolonehasovertheirownwork.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ReducingSupervisionorRelianFormingWorkTeamsTeamscanbeformedwhenaproductorserviceistoolargeorcomplexforonepersontocompletealoneortocompleteanentireproduct.Thiscanresultinthedevelopmentofavarietyofskillsandincreasetheidentityofthejob.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.FormingWorkTeamsTeamscanbeMakingFeedbackMoreDirectPermitworkerstobeidentifiedwiththeir“own”productorservicesothatifacustomerencountersproblems,heorshecancontacttheworkerdirectly.Isusuallyusedinconjunctionwithotherjobdesignproceduresthatpermitworkerstobeidentifiedwiththeir“own”productorservice.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.MakingFeedbackMoreDirectPerPotentialProblemswithJobEnrichmentJobenrichmentcanencounteranumberofchallengingproblems:PoordiagnosisLackofdesireorskillDemandforrewardsUnionresistanceSupervisoryresistanceCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PotentialProblemswithJobEnPoorDiagnosisProblemswithjobenrichmentcanoccurwhenitisinstitutedwithoutacarefuldiagnosisoftheneedsoftheorganizationandtheparticularjobsinquestion.Anespeciallylikelyerrorinvolvesincreasingjobbreadthorwhatisknownasjobenlargement.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PoorDiagnosisProblemswithjoJobEnlargementIncreasingjobbreadthbygivingemployeesmoretaskstoperformatthesamelevelwhileleavingtheothercrucialcorecharacteristicsunchanged.Workersaregivenmoreboring,fragmented,routinetaskstodo.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.JobEnlargementIncreasingjobLackofDesireorSkillSomeworkersdonotdesireenrichedjobs.Someworkersmightlacktheskillsandcompetencenecessarytoperformenrichedjobseffectively.Enrichmentmightentailsubstantialtrainingcosts.Itmightbedifficulttotrainsomeworkersincertainskillsrequiredbyenrichedjobs.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LackofDesireorSkillSomewoDemandforRewardsWorkerswhoexperiencejobenrichmentoftenexpectgreaterextrinsicrewards,suchaspay,toaccompanytheirredesignedjobs.Thisisbecauseenrichedjobsoftenrequirethedevelopmentofnewskillsandentailgreaterresponsibility.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.DemandforRewardsWorkerswhoUnionResistanceNorthAmericanunionshavetraditionallynotbeenenthusiasticaboutjobenrichment.Companiesandunionshavebeguntodismantlerestrictivecontractprovisionsregardingjobdesign.Fewerjobclassificationsmeanmoreopportunitiesforflexibilitybycombiningtasksandusingteamapproaches.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.UnionResistanceNorthAmericanSupervisoryResistanceJobenrichmentcanfailduetounanticipatedeffectsonotherjobsorpartsoftheorganizationalsystem.Enrichmentincreasestheautonomyofemployeesanditmight“disenrich”thesupervisor’sjob.Onesolutionisforthesupervisortobecomeatraineranddeveloperofindividualsonenrichedjobs.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.SupervisoryResistanceJobenriWorkDesignAcknowledgesboththejobandthebroaderworkenvironmentthatconsistsofawidervarietyofworkdesigncharacteristics.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.WorkDesignAcknowledgesbothtWorkDesignCharacteristicsAttributesofthetask,job,andsocialandorganizationalenvironment.Threecategories:MotivationalcharacteristicsSocialcharacteristicsWorkcontextcharacteristicsCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.WorkDesignCharacteristicsAttMotivationalCharacteristicsIncludestaskcharacteristicswhicharesimilartothecorejobcharacteristicsoftheJobCharacteristicsModel.Knowledgecharacteristicsrefertothekindsofknowledge,skill,andabilitydemandsrequiredtoperformajob.Notedistinctionbetweentaskvarietyandskillvariety.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.MotivationalCharacteristicsInSocialCharacteristicsHastodowiththeinterpersonalandsocialaspectsofworkandincludes:SocialsupportInterdependenceInteractionoutsideoftheorganizationFeedbackfromothersCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.SocialCharacteristicsHastodWorkContextCharacteristicsReferstothecontextwithinwhichworkisperformedandconsistsof:ErgonomicsPhysicaldemandsWorkconditionsEquipmentuseCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.WorkContextCharacteristicsReResearchEvidenceEachcategoryofworkdesigncharacteristicsisrelatedtoworkattitudesandbehaviours.Thesocialcharacteristicsaremorestronglyrelatedtosomeoutcomes(e.g.,turnoverintentions)thanthemotivationalcharacteristics.Overall,workdesigncharacteristicshavealargeandsignificanteffectonemployeeattitudesandbehaviours.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchEvidenceEachcategoryManagementbyObjectivesAnelaborate,systematic,ongoingprogramdesignedtofacilitategoalestablishment,goalaccomplishment,andemployeedevelopment.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagementbyObjectivesAnelaManagementbyObjectivesProcessObjectivesfortheorganizationasawholearedevelopedbytopmanagementanddiffuseddownthroughtheorganization.Organizationalobjectivesaretranslatedintospecificbehaviouralobjectivesforindividualmembers.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagementbyObjectivesProceManagementbyObjectivesProcess(continued)TheMBOprocessinvolvesmanager-employeeinteractions:Themanagermeetswithindividualworkerstodevelopandagreeonemployeeobjectiveswhichcanincludejobperformanceandpersonaldevelopmentobjectives.Thereareperiodicmeetingstomonitoremployeeprogressinachievingobjectives.Anappraisalmeetingisheldtoevaluatetheextenttowhichtheagreedobjectiveshavebeenachieved.TheMBOcycleisrepeated.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ManagementbyObjectivesProceResearchEvidenceResearchevidenceshowsclearproductivitygainsassociatedwithMBO.AnumberoffactorsareassociatedwiththefailureofMBOprograms:Lackofcommitmentfromtopmanagement.Anoveremphasisonmeasurableobjectivesattheexpenseofmorequalitativeobjectives.Excessiveshort-termorientation.Performancereviewbecomesanexerciseinbrowbeatingorpunishingemployeesforfailuretoachieveobjectives.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ResearchEvidenceResearchevidAlternativeWorkingSchedulesasMotivatorsforaDiverseWorkforceManyorganizationshavemodifiedtraditionalworkingschedules.Thepurposeistomeetdiverseworkforceneedsandpromotejobsatisfaction.Alternativeworkingschedulescanalsofacilitaterecruitmentandreducecostlyabsenteeismandturnover.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.AlternativeWorkingSchedulesAlternativeWorkingSchedulesFlex-timeCompres