语言与应用语言学复习大纲

语言与应用语言学复习大纲PidginsandCreoles

Asimplifiedlanguagederivedfromtwoormorelanguagesiscalledapidgin.Itisacontactlanguagedevelopedandusedbypeoplewhodonotshareacommonlanguageinagivengeographicalarea.Itisusedinalimitedwayandthestructureisverysimplistic.Sincetheyserveasinglesimplisticpurpose,theyusuallydieout.However,ifthepidginisusedlongenough,itbeginstoevolveintoamorerichlanguagewithamorecomplexstructureandrichervocabulary.Oncethepidginhasevolvedandhasacquirednativespeakers(thechildrenlearnthepidginastheirfirstlanguage),itisthencalledaCreole.AnexampleofthisistheCreoleabovefromPapuaNewGuinea,TokPisin,whichhasbecomeaNationallanguage.

ReasonsforthedevelopmentofPidgins

Inthenineteenthcentury,whenslavesfromAfricawerebroughtovertoNorthAmericatoworkontheplantations,theywereseparatedfromthepeopleoftheircommunityandmixedwithpeopleofvariousothercommunities,thereforetheywereunabletocommunicatewitheachother.Thestrategybehindthiswassotheycouldn’tcomeupwithaplottoescapebacktotheirland.Therefore,inordertofinallycommunicatewiththeirpeersontheplantations,andwiththeirbosses,theyneededtoformalanguageinwhichtheycouldcommunicate.Pidginsalsoarosebecauseofcolonization.ProminentlanguagessuchasFrench,Spanish,Portuguese,English,andDutchwerethelanguagesofthecolonizers.Theytraveled,andsetupportsincoastaltownswhereshippingandtradingrouteswereaccessible.

Thereisalwaysadominantlanguagewhichcontributesmostofthevocabularyofthepidgin,thisiscalledthesuperstratelanguage.LanguageandPoliticsReadthepassageandexperiencehowlanguageisusedbysomeofthefamouswesternpoliticians.-------------------------------------------------Inthelonghistoryoftheworldonlyafewgenerationshavebeengrantedtheroleofdefendingfreedominitshourofmaximumdanger.Idonotshrinkfromthisresponsibility;Iwelcomeit.Idonotbelievethatanyofuswouldexchangeplaceswithanyotherpeopleoranyothergeneration.Theenergy,thefaith,thedevotionwhichwebringtothisendeavourwilllightourcountryandallwhoserveit,andtheglowfromthatfirecantrulylighttheworld.Andso,myfellowAmericans,asknot,whatyourcountrycandoforyou.Askwhatyoucandoforyourcountry.1962;JohnF.Kennedy;broadcastspeechmadeduringCubanMissileCrisisSuddenlythenationhasbeenplungedintoamidwinterelection.YoumustbeaskingwhyhasMr.Heathdecidedtomakeadesperaterunforit.Itcan’tbebecauseofthedisputewiththeminers.Mr.Heathcan’tbeaskingyoutovotehimbacksothathecanmakeanhonorablesettlementwiththeminers.No,Mr.Heathismakingarunforit,inthehopethatthesmokescreenoftheminers’dispute-adisputethathehasdeliberatelystokedup-willdistractyoufromtherealissues.Thiselectionisnotabouttheminers;notaboutthemilitants;notaboutthepoweroftheunions:it’saboutthedisastrousfailureofthreeandahalfyearsofConservativegovernmentwhichhasturnedBritainfromthepathofprosperitytotheroadofruin.1974;HaroldWilson;speechmadeinGeneralElectioncampaign.Tothosewaitingwithbatedbreathforthatfavoritemediacatchphrasethe“U-turn”,Ihaveonlyonethingtosay:Youturn,ifyouwantto;thelady’snotforturning!1981;MargaretThatcher;speechtoConservativePartyannualconference;speechwrittenbySirRonaldMiller.I’lltellyouwhathappenswithimpossiblepromises:youstartwithfar-fetchedresolutions;theyarethenpickledintoarigiddogmacold.Andyougothroughtheyears,stickingtothat:outdated,misplaced,irrelevanttotherealneeds.AndyouendinthegrotesquechaosofaLabourcouncil-aLabourcouncil-hiringtaxistoscuttleroundacity,handingoutredundancynoticestoitsownworkers.I’mtellingyounow:nomatterhowentertaining,howfulfillingtoshort-termegos-I’lltellyouandyou’lllisten-I’mtellingyou,I’mtellingyou-youcan’tplaypoliticswithpeople’sjobsandpeople’sservices.1985;NeilKinnock;speech(unscripted)toLabourPartyannualconference.AndIwanttosaysomethingtotheschoolchildrenofAmericawhowerewatchingthelivecoverageoftheshuttle’stake-off.Iknowit’shardtounderstand,butsometimespainfulthingslikethishappen.It’sallpartoftheprocessofexplorationanddiscovery.It’sallpartoftakingachance,ofexpandingman’shorizons.Thefuturedoesn’tbelongtothefaint-hearted.Itbelongstothebrave.TheChallengercrewwaspullingusintothefutureandwe’llcontinuetofollowthem.Wewillneverforgetthem,northelasttimewesawthemthismorning,astheypreparedfortheirjourneyandwavedgoodbye,andslippedthesurlybondsofearth,totouchthefaceofGod*.1985;RonaldReagan;TVbroadcastaftertheChallenger(spaceshuttle)disaster.*ThereferencehereistoHighFlight(anAirman’sEcstasy)apoembyaCanadianpilot,JohnGillespieMagee(1922-1941),whowrites:Oh,Ihaveslippedthesurlybondsofearth...

PutoutmyhandandtouchedthefaceofGod.ThemetaphoroftouchingthefaceofGodalsofiguredinaninformalspeechfromthefictitiousPresidentoftheUSAinanepisodeoftheTVdrama,TheWestWing,broadcastonChannel4intheUK,inFebruary2001.Thespeechwasthelastbitofdialogueintheepisode-werethewritersconsciouslyalludingtoMagee’spoem,Reagan’sspeech,orboth?ThispassageistakenfromAndrewMooreat/armoore/LanguageandgenderManypeoplestronglybelieveeventodayifyoulookindetailintothelanguageweuse,youwillinevitablyfindthatlanguageiscloselyrelatedtogenderofthespeaker.ThefollowingpassageistakenfromAndrewMooreat/armoore/Readthepassageanddecidehowmuchyouagreewiththeideascontainedinit.----------------------------------------Historicalbias:Languageformsmaypreserveoldattitudesthatshowmenassuperior(morally,spiritually,intellectuallyorabsolutely)towomen.Todaythismaycauseoffence,soweseetheseformsassuitableforchange.Butchangesmayberesistediftheyseemclumsy.Themaleasthenorm:Men,manandmankindmayimplythis.Thetermforthespeciesorpeopleingeneralisthesameasthatforonesexonly.Personalpronounsandpossessivesafteranounmayalsoshowthisimplicitassumption.SeeGuidelinesforNonsexistUsage,quotedbyCrystal(CEEL,p.369),CarolynJacobson’sNon-SexistLanguageandtheNCTEguidelinesshequotes.Seeifagiventextfollows(anyof)theseguidelinesornot.Namesandtitles:Considerconventionsofnaminginmarriage.Consideralsotitlesformarriedandunmarriedpeopleofeithersex.Whyarestageperformersoftenexceptedfromthese"rules"(e.g.MichaelWilliamsismarriedtoMiss[nowDame]JudiDench).Lookatnounsthatdenoteworkersinagivenoccupation.Insomecases(teacher,social-worker)theymayseemgender-neutral.Othersmayhavegender-neutraldenotation(doctor,lawyer,nurse)butnotg-nconnotationforallspeakersandlisteners.Speakerswillshowthisinformssuchaswomandoctor,malenurse.Listenersmaynotshowitbuttheirexpectationscanbetestedbystatementsorshortnarrativesthatallowforcontradictionofassumptions(e.g.aboutadoctorornursedepictedasthespouseofamanorwoman,asappropriate).Considerformsthatdifferentiatebygender,inaddingdiminutive(belittling)affixes:Waitress,usherette,stewardess.Semanticnon-equivalences:Thesearepairsoftermsthathistoricallydifferentiatedbysexalone,butwhich,overtime,havegaineddifferentconnotations(e.g.ofstatusorvalue)andinsomecasesdifferentdenotations.Examplesinclude:Mrs,Ms/Mr;Miss/Master,Mr;mistress/master;governess/governor;spinster/bachelor;tomboy/sissy;Lady/Lord;lady/gentleman;dame/knight;bride/(bride)groom;madam/sir;queen/king;matron/patron;husband/wife;author/authoress;dog/bitch.Patronizing,controllingandinsulting:Thisisnotjustagenderissue-thesearefunctions(orabuses)oflanguagewhichmayappearinanysocialsituation.Buttheytakeparticularformswhenthespeaker(usually)orwriterismaleandtheaddresseeisfemale.Insomecasesthepatronizing,controllingorinsultingonlyworksbecausebothpartiesshareawarenessoftheseconnotations.Itispossiblefortheaddresseenottoperceive-orthespeakernottointend-thepatronizing,controllingorinsulting.Patronizingtermsincludedear,love,petoraddressingagroupofadultwomenasgirls.Notethatcallingmenboysorladsisnotseenasdemeaning.(Whyisthis?)ShirleyRussellarguesthatinsultingisameansofcontrol.ShequotesJuliaStanley,whoclaimsthatinalargelexiconoftermsformales,26arenon-standardnounsthatdenotepromiscuousmen.Somehaveapprovingconnotation(stallion,stud).Inasmallerlistofnounsforwomenare220whichdenotepromiscuity(e.g.slut,scrubber,tart).Allhavedisapprovingconnotation.Equallytermsdenotingabstinence-likethenounphrasetightbitch-aredisapproving.InLosingOutProfessorSueLeesarguesthatmencontrolfemalebehaviourbyuseofsuchterms,especiallyslag.Notethattodaybothdogandbitchareusedpejorativelyofwomen.Dogdenotesphysicalunattractiveness,whilebitchdenotesafaultofcharacter.Beauty:Judgingwomenbyappearanceiswell-attestedbylanguageforms.Blonde,anadjectiveofcolour,becomesanoun,withconnotationsoflowintelligence.Brunettehasasimilarorigin,ashasthecompoundnounredhead(nocommontermforawomanwithblackhair).Babeisbothapproving(beauty)anddisapproving(intelligence).Morestronglypejorative(aboutintellect)isbimbo.Amaleequivalent-himbo-hasnotpassedintocommonuse.(Thesoftwareonwhichthisguideiswrittenacceptsbimbobutnothimboasaknownform.)Hunk(approving)andwimp(disapproving)applytomencriteriaofstrengthandattractiveness,butneitherhasclearconnotationaboutintelligence.Crossinggenderboundaries:Non-standardtermsmaycrossgenderboundaries.IntheUSAguysissometimesusedtodenotemixed-groups.Tottyhasbeenrecordedtodenotemen.Birdwascurrentinthelate1990scurrentforanattractive(young)maninEastYorkshire(female6thformer,1997).GenderdifferencesinspokenEnglish:KeithandShuttleworthrecordsuggestionsthat:women-talkmorethanmen,talktoomuch,aremorepolite,areindecisive/hesitant,complainandnag,askmorequestions,supporteachother,aremoreco-operative,whereasmen-swearmore,don’ttalkaboutemotions,talkaboutsportmore,talkaboutwomenandmachinesinthesameway,insulteachotherfrequently,arecompetitiveinconversation,dominateconversation,speakwithmoreauthority,givemorecommands,interruptmore.Notethatsomeoftheseareobjectivedescriptionswhichcanbeverified(askquestions,givecommands)whileothersexpressunscientificpopularideasaboutlanguageandintroducenon-linguisticvaluejudgements(nag,speakwithmoreauthority).RobinLakoffidentifiesthesetenfeaturesofwomen’slanguageuse.Women(allegedly):hedge(sortof,kindof);use(super)politeforms(wouldyouplease?I’dreallyappreciate...);usetagquestions(...don’tyou?...isn’tit?);speakinitalics(emphaticsoandvery,intonationalemphasis);useredundantqualifiers(just[adv.]charming,divine,sweet,adorable[adj.]);usehypercorrectgrammarandpronunciation(includingungrammaticalforms,likebetweenyouandI[standardsyntax=betweenyouandme]);arepooratrecountingjokes(thisisasubjectivejudgementunlessitisrelatedtoobjectivelanguagedata,generallyagreedtobeimportantinjoke-telling-whatarethese?);usedirectquotation;usespeciallexis(e.g.ofcolour);useintonationforquestionsindeclarativecontexts.ExamplesfromBrownandLevinson’sExamplesfromBrownandLevinson’s

Politenessstrategies:Baldon-record:TheseprovidenoeffortbyyoutoreducetheimpactoftheFTA’s(FaceThreateningActs).Youwillmostlikelyshockthepersontowhomyourarespeakingto,embarrassthem,ormakethemfeelabituncomfortable.However,thistypeofstrategyiscommonlyfoundwithpeoplewhoknoweachotherverywell,andareverycomfortableintheirenvironment,suchasclosefriendsandfamily.

AnEmergency:

HELP!!

Taskoriented:

Givemethat!

Request:

Putyourcoataway.

Alerting:

Turnyourheadlightson!(Whenalertingsomeonetosomethingtheyshouldbedoing)PositivePoliteness:Itisusuallyseeningroupsoffriends,orwherepeopleinthegivensocialsituationknoweachotherfairlywell.Itusuallytriestominimizethedistancebetweenthembyexpressingfriendlinessandsolidinterestinthehearer’sneedtoberespected(minimizetheFTA).

Attendtothehearer:

"Youmustbehungry,it’salongtimesincebreakfast.Howaboutsomelunch?"

Avoiddisagreement:

A:"Whatisshe,small?"

B:"Yes,yes,she’ssmall,smallish,um,notreallysmallbutcertainlynotverybig."

Assumeagreement:

"Sowhenareyoucomingtoseeus?"

Hedgeopinion:

"Youreallyshouldsortoftryharder."NegativePoliteness:Themainfocusforusingthisstrategyistoassumethatyoumaybeimposingonthehearer,andintrudingontheirspace.Therefore,theseautomaticallyassumethattheremightbesomesocialdistanceorawkwardnessinthesituation.

Beindirect:

"I’mlookingforacomb."

Inthissituationyouarehopingthatyouwillnothavetoaskdirectly,soasnottoimposeandtakeupthehearer’stime.Therefore,byusingthisindirectstrategy,youhopetheywilloffertogofindoneforyou.

Forgiveness:

"Youmustforgivemebut...."

Minimizeimposition:

"IjustwanttoaskyouifIcoulduseyourcomputer?"

Pluralizethepersonresponsible:

"Weforgottotellyouthatyouneededtobyyourplaneticketbyyesterday."

Thistakesallresponsibilityoffofonlyyouandonto"we",evenifyouwerethepersonresponsiblefortellingthehearerwhenthedeadlinewastobuytheticket.Off-Record(indirect):Youareremovingyourselffromanyimpositionwhatsoever.

Givehints:

"It’scoldinhere."

Bevague:

"Perhapssomeoneshouldhavebeenmoreresponsible."

Besarcastic,orjoking:

"Yeah,It’sarealrocketscientist!"Afewtermsforpolitenessstrategy

ThesedefinitionsarefreelyadaptedfromHarrisonandBrown&Levinson.Youmaytrytolinkwhatyou’vereadtowhatyou’veexperiencedineverydaylife,sothatyoucancometosomebetterunderstandingofthesetheories.-----------------------------------------------------face-publicselfimage

positiveface-aperson’sdesiretobelikedandunderstood

negativeface-aperson’sdesiretoactfreely

positivepolitenessstrategy-astrategythatseekstocreateapositiverelationshipwiththehearer

negativepolitenessstrategy-astrategythatseekstominimisethethreattothehearer"sface

bald,on-recordstrategies-attackingahearer’sthreatwithoutmitigatingthethreat

off-the-recordstrategies-attackingahearer’sthreatinawaythatcanbedeniedifchallengedWhatstrategiesaregoingoninthefollowingutterances?

toastudentleavingtheroom:"Couldyoujustpullthedoortoasyougo?Thanks."

toafriend:"Youhaven’tgotaquidyoucouldlendme’tilIhaveachancetogettothebank,haveyou?

toapartner:"Thecatmustbehungry-hehasn’tbeenfedallday"

toadaughter:"Thatnewstylistdidagoodjobofcuttingyourhair-doyouthinkitmightlookbetteracolourotherthanpink?"

toacolleague:"WhileIagreethatefficiencyisimportant,Iwonderiftheremightn’tbesomemileageinlookingatusability."

policeman:"CouldIseeyoudrivinglicensepleasesir?"

toateenager:"Makesureyou’rebackbymidnight"

sergeantmajor:"Quickmarch!"PolitenessIneverydayconversation,therearewaystogoaboutgettingthethingswewant.Whenwearewithagroupoffriends,wecansaytothem,“Gogetmethatplate!”,or“Shut-up!”However,whenwearesurroundedbyagroupofadultsataformalfunction,inwhichourparentsareattending,wemustsay,“Couldyoupleasepassmethatplate,ifyoudon’tmind?”and“I’msorry,Idon’tmeantointerrupt,butIamnotabletohearthespeakerinthefrontoftheroom.”Indifferentsocialsituations,weareobligatedtoadjustouruseofwordstofittheoccasion.Itwouldseemsociallyunacceptableifthephrasesabovewerereversed.Inthispassageyou’llhaveachancetoseehowspecialistsdealwiththesubjectofPOLITENESS.-------------------------------------------------------------AccordingtoBrownandLevinson,politenessstrategiesaredevelopedinordertosavethehearers’“face.”Facereferstotherespectthatanindividualhasforhimorherself,andmaintainingthat“self-esteem”inpublicorinprivatesituations.Usuallyyoutrytoavoidembarrassingtheotherperson,ormakingthemfeeluncomfortable.FaceThreateningActs(FTA’s)areactsthatinfringeonthehearers’needtomaintainhis/herselfesteem,andberespected.PolitenessstrategiesaredevelopedforthemainpurposeofdealingwiththeseFTA’s.Whatwouldyoudoifyousawacupofpensonyourteacher’sdesk,andyouwantedtouseone,wouldyou

a.say,“Ooh,Iwanttouseoneofthose!”

b.say,“So,isitO.K.ifIuseoneofthosepens?”

c.say,“I’msorrytobotheryoubut,IjustwantedtoaskyouifIcoulduseoneofthosepens?”

d.Indirectlysay,“Hmm,Isurecoulduseabluepenrightnow.”

Therearefourtypesofpolitenessstrategies,describedbyBrownandLevinson,thatsumuphuman“politeness”behavior:BaldOnRecord,NegativePoliteness,PositivePoliteness,andOff-Record-indirectstrategy.

IfyouansweredA,youusedwhatiscalledtheBaldOn-Recordstrategywhichprovidesnoefforttominimizethreatstoyourteachers’“face.”

IfyouansweredB,youusedthePositivePolitenessstrategy.Inthissituationyourecognizethatyourteacherhasadesiretoberespected.Italsoconfirmsthattherelationshipisfriendlyandexpressesgroupreciprocity.

IfyouansweredC,youusedtheNegativePolitenessstrategywhichsimilartoPositivePolitenessinthatyourecognizethattheywanttoberespectedhowever,youalsoassumethatyouareinsomewayimposingonthem.Someotherexampleswouldbetosay,“Idon’twanttobotheryoubut...”or“Iwaswonderingif...”

IfyouansweredD,youusedOff-Recordindirectstrategies.Themainpurposeistotakesomeofthepressureoffofyou.Youaretryingnottodirectlyimposebyaskingforapen.Insteadyouwouldratheritbeofferedtoyouoncetheteacherrealizesyouneedone,andyouarelookingtofindone.Agreatexampleofthisstrategyissomethingthatalmosteveryonehasdoneorwilldowhenyouhave,onpurpose,decidednottoreturnsomeone’sphonecall,thereforeyousay,“Itriedtocallahundredtimes,buttherewasneveranyanswer.”AreWomenMorePoliteThanMen?AreWomenMorePoliteThanMen?

Politenessisdefinedbytheconcernforthefeelingsofothers.

FromNancyBonvillain’s“Language,Culture,andCommunication”shenotesthat,“womentypicallyusemorepolitespeechthandomen,characterizedbyahighfrequencyofhonorific(showingrespectforthepersontowhomyouaretalkingto,formalstylisticmarkers),andsofteningdevicessuchashedgesandquestions.”

Sociolinguiststrytoexplainwhythere