语言 文化 社会 Language,-Culture,-and-Society

ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,&Society1.LanguageandCulture1.1Whatisculture?

Broadlyspeaking:Itmeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguage.Inanarrowsense:Itreferstolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms.1.2TheheritageconcerningthestudyoflanguageandcultureMalinowski’sstudy马林诺夫斯基的研究:thewordwoodontheTrobriandIslandsoffeasternNewGuineaSpeechcommunity言语社区Firth’sstudy弗斯的研究:ContextofSituation情景语境Halliday’sstudy韩礼德的研究:ThestudyoflanguagefromasociallysemioticorinteractionalperspectiveWhatdidlinguistsfromtheNorthAmericansidedo?TherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureTheAmericanIndiancultureThereconstructionofAmericanNativelanguagesBoas,Sapir,WhorfFieldwork,first-handevidenceTheethnographyofcommunication交际民俗学1.3TheSapir-WhorfHypothesis(萨丕尔—沃尔夫假说)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkinganddifferentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Twopointsinhistheory:1)Languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;2)similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.Linguisticdeterminism(语言决定论):语言决定思维Linguisticrelativity(语言相对论)：思维相对于语言，思维模式随着语言的不同而不同。TheGermanethnologist,WillaimvonHumboldt洪堡特EugeneNida奈达:alinguistandtranslationtheoristAstranslators,ifwewanttodoagoodjobinCROSS-CULTURALCOMMUNICATION,weshouldalwaysbeawareofsometypesofsub-culture.Sapir：真实世界在很大程度上是建筑在社会集团的语言习惯之上，并且是无意识的，不同社会生活的世界是不同的世界，甚至相对比较简单的感知事实也在很大程度上受到不同社会模式的支配。Whorf：实际上，思维神秘莫测，而迄今为止我们对此所具有的最大理解是通过研究语言获得的。研究表明，人的思维是受到模式无情的法则控制的，这些模式就是人自己语言种种复杂的系统化，并且是人未感知到的。

人的世界观是由语言控制的。一种语言有一种语言独特的系统，因而思维也是独特的。1.4MoreabouttheSapir-WhorfhypothesisThestrongversion(强式说):EmphasizesthedecisiveroleoflanguageastheshaperofourthinkingpatternsTheweakversion(弱式说):Suggestthatthereisacorrelationbetweenlanguage,culture,andthought,thecross-culturaldifferencesproducedinourwaysofthinkingarerelative,ratherthancategorical.Alivelycontroversyaboutthehypothesis:Twoexamplestoshowthecomplexityandcontroversyofthetheory:OneisquotedfromHopi,anAmericannativelanguagespokeninArizona;theotheristakenfromalanguagespokeninthecentralhighlandsofIrianJaya(伊里安岛，太平洋).Thefirstexampleservestoshowhowlanguagesmaydifferfromeachother.Thesecondexampleservestochallengethehypothesis.'Hegavemanspeech,andspeechcreatedthought,

Whichisthemeasureoftheuniverse'

PrometheusUnbound,

ShelleyInHopi,thereissomethingveryspecialaboutitsgrammar.Oneofthefeaturesthatseparateitfromotherlanguagesisthatitdoesnotusethesamemeanstoexpresstime,andhenceiscalledasa“timelesslanguage”(没有时间的语言).Donotrecognizetimeasalineardimension.Hopiverbsdonothavetensesoftimeandnoconceptofspeed.印欧语言：严式语言→严式思维轨迹→构造分析→逻辑演绎→智性精神汉语：宽式语言→宽式思维轨迹→整体领悟→类比联想→悟性精神TwoAmericanscholarsconductedalargecross-linguisticinvestigationofbasiccolorvocabulary.ThefindingisthatcolorwordsystemsindifferentlanguagesarenotlikewhathasbeenassumedbytheSapirandWhorfhypothesis,beingculturallydeterminedandhenceabsolutelydifferentfromoneanother.Differentlanguagesmightwellundergoauniversalevolutionaryprocessofdevelopmentwhichmadethebasiccolorsysteminonelanguagedifferentfromthatinanotheronlyintermsofthestagesoftheirevolution.SeethebasicevolutionarystagesofbasiccolorwordsonPage165.Accordingtothisevolutionarytheory,Englishhasalltheelevenbasiccolorwordssoitreachesthelaststageofevolution.Thistheorycorrectlycapturesakindofgeneralizationincolorwordscross-culturally.ThisevolutionarytheoryfindsagoodexampleinthesecondexampleoftheIrianlanguage,alanguagewhichhasbecomewellknownforitsveryrestrictedsystemofbasiccolorwords.Thereareonlytwobasiccolorwordsinthislanguage:modlaforlight,bright,hence,white,andmili

fordark,dull,hence,black.WhatwillnativeIrianlanguagespeakerdoifhe/shewantstodesignatecolorsotherthanblackandwhite?Ordowhiteandblackalwaysmeanwhiteandblackcross-linguistically?TheinvestigationrevealedthatnativespeakersofthiscultureusethisWhiteversusBlackcontrasttoconveymoremessagesabouttheircolorperception.Theyusemodlaasageneralcolortermtoincludeallwarmcolorssuchasredandyellowandusemiliasanotherumbrellacolorwordtocoverallthecoldcolors.Therefore,thecontrastbetweenmodlaandmiliinfactisacontrastbetween“whitewarmness”versus“blackcoldness”.ThecolorwordsystemintheIrianlanguageisstillinitsfirststageofevolutionandbymeansofusingthiswhitewarmnessandblackcoldnesscontrastandothertypesofcolorwordsderivedfromobjectnames,animals,plantsandsoon,thespeakersfromthisculturecansuccessfullyexpressanycolorslabelledbydistinctcolorwordsinanotherculture.语言具有普遍性的理论。认知科学强调人类认知的共性，这跟语言相对论恰好针锋相对。强调人类认知的基础是人的遗传天赋。常举的一个例子是颜色词的研究。从表面上看各种语言的颜色词各不相同，但Berlin和Kay的研究（1969）发现它们有共性。任何语言至少都有两个颜色词（白和黑），新几内亚高地语只有“白”和“黑”两个颜色词。英语有11个颜色词。有右边的颜色词，就必有其左边的颜色词。这就是语言的共性，并且认知语言学家认为这种共性是有生理基础的，那就是白色跟黑色具有最强的聚焦性，因为眼睛对这两种光频最敏感。杨永林，色彩语码研究进化论与相对论之争，《外语教学与研究》2000年第3期，第190-195页。1.萨皮尔-沃尔夫假说的基本内容是什么？你对其作何评价？2.试论语言与文化的相互影响3.从中西文化比较看沃尔夫对霍皮语言和欧洲语言的比较4、怎样看待中西文化对话中的民族文化立场1.5Casestudies(个案研究)Theinterplayoflanguageandculturemayrangefromtextualstructuretophonologicalvariation.Kaplan(1966):Thestructuralorganizationofatexttendstobeculturallyspecific.Nida(1998):Wordsaresometimes“idiomatically-governed”and“culturally-specific”.杨永林(1993)madeseveralcasestudiesthroughhispersonalexposuretotheAmericanculture.1)Whenyougetyourhandsdirty,itdoesnotnecessarilymeanintheAmericanculturethatyou’vedonesomemanualworkandneedtowashyourhand.(practicesomething,beengagedindoingsomething)2)Whenyouhaveenoughdumbbells(哑铃),itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatyoukeeppairsofthisinstrumentforregularphysicalpractices.(havelotsofstupidguys)英汉习俗差异是多方面的，最典型的莫过于在对狗这种动物的态度上。狗在汉语中是一种卑微的动物。汉语中与狗有关的习语大都含有贬意：“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”等，尽管近些年来养庞物狗的人数大大增加，狗的“地位”似乎有所改变，但狗的贬义形象却深深地留在汉语言文化中。而在西方英语国家，狗被认为是人类最忠诚的朋友。英语中有关狗的习语除了一部分因受其他语言的影响而含有贬义外，大部分都没有贬义。在英语习语中，常以狗的形象来比喻人的行为。如Youarealuckydog（你是一个幸运儿），Everydoghashisday（凡人皆有得意日），Olddogwillmotlearnmewtricks（老人学不了新东西）等等。形容人“病得厉害”用sickasadog，“累极了”是dog-tired。与此相反，中国人十分喜爱猫，用“馋猫”比喻人贪嘴，常有亲呢的成份，而在西方文化中，“猫”被用来比喻“包藏祸心的女人”。龙在中国人民的心目中占有崇高的位置，有关龙的成语非常多，且含有褒义。如“龙跃凤鸣”、“龙骧虎步”等。在外国语言中，赞扬龙的词语非常之少，且含有贬义。如“dragon”指凶暴的人，严厉的人，凶恶严格的监护人，凶恶的老妇人（尤指很少给在其看管下姑娘自由的老妇人）等。以dragon组成的词组也多含贬义。如dragon’steeth：相互争斗的根源；排列或多层的楔形反坦克混克混凝土障碍物。theoldDragon：魔鬼。

Culture-loadedwords烫手的山芋vs.hotpotato雨后春笋vs.springlikemushroom大鱼大肉、鱼肉百姓、酒肉朋友meatandpotatoes，Meatanddrinktosomeonesweetsmile(甜甜的笑容),sweetgirl(甜美的女孩),sweetnothings(甜言蜜语)killthegoosethatlaysthegoldeneggsvs.“杀鸡取卵”Coldwordsvs.冷言冷语Constantdroppingwearsthestone.滴水穿石Diamondcutdiamond.棋逢对手Killamanwhenheisdown.落井下石1.6Doweneedcultureinourlinguisticstudy?Yes.AstudyoflinguisticissuesinaculturalsettingcangreatlypromoteourunderstandingofMOTIVATIONandDIRECTIONALITYinlanguagechange.有助于对语言变化的动因和方向性进行理解。TheWatergateexample:Thewatergate:美国华盛顿特区一综合大厦，1972年6月17日夜间共和党争取总统连任委员会有关人员潜入大厦内民主党全国委员会总部而被捕，暴露了共和党政府在总统竞选中的非法活动，导致美国历史上首次的总统辞职(尼克松)。水门事件式丑闻，丑闻ThissuffixenjoysarichproductivityinAmericanEnglish.Wordsderivedfromthissourceinevitablytakeonaculturallypejorativeimplicationtoreferto“thedisclosuresofmisconductinhighplaces”(被揭发出来的高层丑闻).1.7CultureinlanguageteachingclassroomTherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguageteachingThreeobjectivesforustoteachcultureinourlanguageclass:1)Togetstudentsfamiliarwithculturaldifferences;2)Tohelpstudentstranscendtheirowncultureandseethingsasthemembersofthetargetculturewill;3)Toemphasizetheinseparabilityofunderstandinglanguageandunderstandingculturethroughvariousclassroompractices.2.Languageandsociety2.1Howdoeslanguagerelatetosociety?LinguisticsasaMONISTICorAUTONOMOUSPURSUITofanindependentscience一元性或自治性ChomskyanlinguisticsLinguisticsasaDUALISTICinquiry二元性

SociolinguisticsThesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenLandsociety,betweentheusesofLandthethesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.2.2AsituationallyandsociallyvariationistperspectiveAnappropriatelanguageuseinanysocialinteractionnotonlyhassomethingtodowithstructuralrules,butalsoinvolvessomesociallyinstitutionalizednormsinusage.Thechoiceofoneformoveranotherisbothstylisticallyandsociallygoverned.Amaximinsociolinguistics:“Youarewhatyousay.”(尔即尔所言)Somesocialfactorsthatinfluenceourlanguagebehaviourinasocialcontext:1)class2)gender3)age4)ethnicidentity5)educationbackground6)occupation7)religiousbelief2.3WilliamLabov’sstudyWilliamLabov(拉波夫):afamoussociolinguistHeconductedasurveyatseveraldepartmentsintheCityofNewYorkinthemiddleof1960s.Theobjectiveofhissurveywastoexaminetherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstatusandtheirphonologicalVARIATIONS.TheSocialStratificationofEnglishinNewYorkCity(1966)《纽约英语的社会阶层性》Labovexplicitlydelineatedthepatternsofstratificationbyclassandstyleandsuccessfullyintroducedclassasanindispensablesociolinguisticvariable.调查纽约市内不同阶层的人说英语时使用元音后的[r]音的情况（保留还是脱落）。元音后[r]音的保留被认为是社会中上层人士说话的标志。WilliamLabov(bornDecember4,1927)isaprofessorinthelinguisticsdepartmentoftheUniversityofPennsylvania.Heiswidelyregardedasthefounderofthedisciplineofquantitativesociolinguisticsandpursuesresearchinsociolinguisticsanddialectology.2.4GenderdifferencesinspeechDifferencesbetweenwomenandmenhavealwaysbeenatopicofinteresttothehumanspeciesandsupposedlinguisticdifferencesareoftenenshrinedinproverbs:Awoman'stonguewagslikealamb'stail.(England)Foxesarealltailandwomenarealltongue.(England-Cheshire)TheNorthSeawillsoonerbefoundwantinginwaterthanawomanatalossforaword.(Jutland)ThereexistsaWOMENREGISTER.Itsfeaturesinclude:1)Womenusemore“fancy”colortermsmauve,beige,aquamarine,lavender,magentaImagineamanandawomanbothlookingatthesamewall,paintedapinkishshadeofpurple.Thewomanmaysay:Thewallismauve.

Ifthemanshouldsaytheabovesentence,onemightwellconcludehewasimitatingawomansarcastically,orwasahomosexual,oraninteriordecorator.2)Womenuselesspowerfulcursewords少用Goddamnit!Damn!Shit!Fuckyou!常用Oh,dear!Goodnessme!a.Ohdear,you'veputthepeanutbutterintherefrigeratoragain.b.Shit,you'veputthepeanutbutterintherefrigeratoragain.3)Womenusemoreintensifiersterrible,awful,sogood,suchfun,exquisite,lovely,divine,precious,adorable,darling,fantastic.InChapterIIIinJaneAusten’snovel,PrideandPrejudice,MrsBennet,excitedafterparticipatinginaparty,talkedtoherhusbandaboutMr.Bingleyasfollows:Oh!MydearMr.Bennet,wehavehadamostexcellentball.…Janewasso

admired.Everybodysaidhowwellshelooked.Mr.Bingleythoughtherquite

beautiful,…Iwassovexedtoseehimstandupwithher.…Iamquite

delightedwithhim.Heisso

excessively

handsome!…[Mr.Darcy]isamostdisagreeable,horridman.Sohighandsoconceitedthattherewasnoenduringhim!Hewalkedhere,andhewalkedthere,fancyinghimselfsoverygreat!Nothandsomeenoughtodancewith.4)WomenusemoretagquestionsJohnishere,isn’tit?5)WomenusemorestatementquestionsDinnerwillbereadyatseveno’clock?6)Women’slinguisticbehaviourismoreindirectandmorepolitethanmen’sThesedifferencesinlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.LINGUISTICSEXISM语言性别歧视现象许多职业名称如doctor,professor,engineer等，人们习惯于把它们跟男性联系在一起，若要指称女性，往往要加上woman一词，如womandoctor。还有一些名称含有男性的语素man，如chairman,congressman,spokesman,salesman等，也用来指女性。Man作为mankind的同义词指人类，男女性都包括在内。与之相呼应，英语的人称代词中，he(他)有时也可包括she(她)，例如：Aprofessorusuallyseeshisstudentsduringofficehours.Whatislinguisticsexism?

AccordingtoRuthKing(1991:2-3),"Wecanassumeanactoflinguisticdiscriminationagainstwomenhasoccurredif:1.

thereisadifferenceinthewaymenandwomenaretreated;

2.

thisdifferingtreatmentislessfavourabletowomen;and

3.

thebasisforthedifferenceisgenderrelated."King,Ruth.1991.TalkingGender;AGuidetoNonsexistCommunication.Toronto:CoppClarkPitmanLtd.Typesoflinguisticsexism

(fromKing1991)1.male-as-norm(womeninvisible)

Eachcandidateshouldincludethreecopiesofhisrésuméwiththeapplication.

2.irrelevantreferencetogender

Thatwomandentistisreallyexcellent.

3.

irrelevantreferencetophysicalappearanceordomesticrelationships

SusanDixon,abeautiful,green-eyedblonde,hasjustenteredherfirstyearofmedicalschool.

4.

inappropriateformsofaddress

Heyhoney!What'swrong?

1.语言中的性别歧视现象

刘在良

山东外语教学

1996年03期

2.英汉两种语言中的性别歧视现象

邓红霞

湖南大学学报(社会科学版)

2001年第1期

【摘要】

从比较语言学、社会语言学和语义学的原则入手,从构词和造字、词的搭配、词的内涵意义、称谓、句法中性的标记和谚语等方面讨论性别歧视现象在英、汉两种语言中的表现。

3.语言中的性别歧视及其社会文化内涵

谢元花

湖北师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)

2002年03期

【摘要】

本文首先分析语言中存在着大量的语言性别歧视现象:(1)忽视女性的存在;(2)把女性视为男性的附属;(3)贬低女性。然后从社会分工、社会文化、社会心理三方面来分析造成语言中性别歧视现象背后的社会文化根源。最后说明要消除语言中的性别歧视现象,不能只靠人为地对语言本身进行改变,而主要应该靠根除社会上存在的性别歧视观念来完成。4.女性的言语特色与英语语言的性别特色

刘燕

黑龙江教育学院学报

2002年01期

【摘要】

英语语言文化具有性别歧视的特点,这一特点在女性的交际言语和英语语言的词汇中表现得尤为突出。但随着社会的发展和妇女地位的提高,英语语言中的性别歧视现象会日趋减少,女性应当享有的平等权利也将会在语言中得以充分的体现。

5.语言中的性别歧视——由He/She用法引发的思考

刘汉杰

西安外国语学院学报

2002年01期

【摘要】

本文通过对英语代词he/she用法的调查分析,对其用法所反映的语言中的性别歧视问题加以探讨,并从社会地位和权力,文化意识,社会偏见和传统观念等方面提供了语言性别歧视的原因,最后提出消除语言性别歧视的方法。2.5Whatshouldweknowmoreaboutsociolinguistics?Asociolinguisticstudyofsociety(macrosociolinguistics)Asociolinguisticstudyoflanguage(Microsociolinguistics):Ifwewanttoknowmoreaboutagivensocietyorcommunitybyexaminingthelinguisticbehaviourofitsmembers,wearedoingasociolinguisticstudyofsociety.Thatis,wearedoingsociolinguisticsatamacrolevelofinvestigation.Topicsofstudymayincludebilingualismormultilingualism,languageattitudes,languagechoice,languagemaintenanceandshift,languageplanningandstandardization,vernacularlanguageeducation.Ifwewanttoknowmoreaboutsomelinguisticvariationsinlanguageusebyturningtopotentialsocioculturalfactorsforadescriptionandexplanation,wearedoingasociolinguisticstudyoflanguage.Weareinterestedinexaminingmicrolinguisticphenomenasuchasstructuralvariants,addressforms(称呼语),genderdifferences,discourseanalysis,Pidgin(皮钦语)andCreole(克里奥尔语)languagesandothermorelanguage-relatedissues.皮钦语是在殖民时期诞生的。当欧洲的商人、水手、传教士涉足亚洲、非洲、美洲、大洋州的口岸与当地人打交道时，由于彼此语言不通，就把两种语言的成分混合在一起使用，以达到沟通的目的。皮钦语大多以英语、法语、葡语等某一欧洲语言为基础，把语法规则大大地简化，没有性、数、格等变化和曲折、派生等词形。说话人借助于有限的词语和简单的词序来指称事物或传递指令。皮钦语的生长过程与社会变迁息息相关，它们的命运取决于交际环境的需要。有些皮钦语如17世纪至19世纪在我国南方沿海地区流行的“洋泾浜”英语逐渐消失了。有些皮钦语则稳定了下来，词汇和语法手段丰富了起来，扩大了使用范围和表达功能。皮钦语可成为人们的第二语言，也可发展成为克里奥尔语。当某一地区的人们把皮钦语传授给后代，变为他们的母语时，皮钦语就实现了克里奥尔化。2.6Whatimplicationscanwegetfromsociolinguistics?(appliedsociolinguistics)(1)Inlanguageclassrooms

GrammariansoractivelanguageusersTwodifferentviewsofphilosophyinlanguageteaching:aprocessofacquiringknowledge,aprocessofacquiringcommunicativecompetence(2)InlawcourtsTheanalysisoflanguagedatagatheredasevidenceThepreparationofsomelegaldocumentsEnrichourunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweentheconceptofpowerandlanguageuse.(3)InclinicsettingsTheanalysisofthedialoguebetweendoctorsandpatientsHowtheconceptofpowerisencodedanddecodedthroughlanguageuseinahierarchicalsociety?Theimpactofsomesociologicalfactorsuponthelinguisticbehaviorofthemembersofaspeechcommunity3.Cross-culturalcommunication3.1Whatshouldweknowallaboutcross-culturalcommunication?1)Successfulcommunicationoccurswhenthehearercansee,feel,andunderstandissuesfromthespeaker’spointofview.2)Successfulcommunicationoccurswhenthespeakerandhearerknoweachother’sintention.3)Successfulcommunicationoccurswhenthetwopartiesadoptadynamicdialoguepattern.