大二上学期a社会学导论

社会学导论

AnIntroductiontoSociology

第七讲社会生活的组织化-4：群体和组织

Lecture07OrganizingSocialLife-4:GroupsandOrganizations

北京大学社会学系

刘能

这张开篇照片告诉我们什么？这是一张关于年轻男性时尚用品展销会的招贴画它使用了“AREYOUIN？”这样一句旨在启动“认同感消费”的广告语这张招贴画的目标受众本身就构成了一个群体[称其为亚文化群体也许更恰当]这张招贴画中出现了哪些时尚消费的元素？DJ极限体育影像技术[videotechnology]……I开篇研究：组织个案分析社会的麦当劳化[TheMcDonaldizationofSociety]社会学家GeorgeRitzer[2001]麦当劳化的定义：它描述了在美国发展起来的快餐业运作原则是如何逐渐侵入并主宰了全世界范围内越来越多的产业部门[Thistermof“McDonaldizationofSociety”describeshowtheprinciplesoffast-foodrestaurantsdevelopedintheUnitedStateshavecometodominatemoreandmoresectorsofsocietiesthroughouttheworld.]研究结论“McDonaldizationaffectsnotonlytherestaurantindustry,butalsoeducation,work,healthcare,travel,leisure,dieting,politics,thefamily,andvirtuallyeveryaspectofsociety….”“Theessenceofthissocialprocessis,thebusinessprinciplesonwhichthefastfoodindustryisfounded—efficiency,calculability,predictability,andcontrol—havechangednotonlythewayAmericansdobusinessandruntheirorganizations,butthewaytheylivetheirlives.”麦当劳化的负面后效ThewasteandenvironmentaldegradationcreatedbybillionsofdisposablecontainersThedehumanizedworkroutinesoffast-foodcrews

麦当劳化的辐射领域美发店电视福音教派/罗马教廷的网站香港的生育服务机构医疗诊所[McDentist/McDoctors]澳大利亚咖啡连锁店[McCafe]儿童照看中心[McChild]赛马驯养中心[McStables]媒体巨人USToday[McPaper]……II本讲要点Thislectureconsiderstheimpactofgroupsandorganizationsonsocialinteraction.人们在大型群体中的行为和小型群体中的行为一样吗？如何管理好大型的组织？当代社会变迁对群体结构和个体成员有何影响？本讲内容构成群体类型学[typesofgroups]了解组织：科层制[bureaucracy]/志愿组织[voluntaryorganizations]/组织变迁[organizationalchange]技术对工作场所的影响[technology’simpactontheworkplace]III群体类型学首属[初级]群体[primarygroups]和次级群体[secondarygroups]内群[in-groups]和外群[outgroups]焦点小组[focusgroups]参考群体[referencegroups]小群体[smallgroups]群体规模及其内部结构[groupsizeanditsinternalstructure]何为群体？前面第五讲我们已经给出了群体的定义，现在我们再来温习一下：Agroupisanynumberofpeoplewithsimilarnorms,values,andexpectationswhointeractwithoneanotheronaregularbase.界定性特征：1)membersofagroupsharesomesenseofbelonging;2)theyobserveagreed-onvaluesandsocialnorms.因此，群体不同于以下两类集合体人的临时聚集[aggregatesofpeople]，比如看同一场电影的人群/同乘一架飞机的乘客/街上发生车祸时在场的所有目击者[happentobetogether]人的社会类别[socialcategory]，比如男性/女性/青少年/退休人员等[whoshareacommonfeaturebutotherwisedonotacttogether]首属[初级]群体CharlesHortonCooley[1902]:Primarygroupreferstoasmallgroupcharacterizedbyintimate,face-to-faceassociationandcooperation.[Closebondoffriendship]首属[初级]群体的例子MembersofastreetgangMembersofafamilylivinginthesamehouseholdAgroupofsistersinacollegesorority首属[初级]群体的作用Primarygroupsplayapivotalrolebothinsocializationprocess,andinthedevelopmentofrolesandstatuses.Primarygroupscanalsobeinstrumentalinaperson’sday-to-dayexistence.次级群体Secondarygroupreferstoaformal,impersonalgroupinwhichthereislittlesocialintimacyormutualunderstanding.次级群体的例子企业协会[businessassociations]高校大型班级/大课[largecollegeclasses]接纳太多会员的俱乐部[largeandincreasinglyimpersonalsocialclubs]工作场所中的特定职业群体[occupationalgroupsincertainindustry,suchasthoseformedbypizzadeliveryemployees]作为次级群体的比萨外送员社会学家PatrickKinkade和MichaelKatovich研究了比萨外送员通过上班期间[一起等候订单到来]和下班期间[在酒吧]的社会交往而发展起来的社会关系其中一人花了18个月在得克萨斯州的沃斯堡[Ft.Worth,Texas]的三个比萨店打工，进行了参与式的观察结论1：比萨外送员之间建立社会关系的两种主要途径——1）平时工作中的社会合作和社会交换；2）他们在工作中偶尔发生危险状况时的相互支持和相互帮助结论2：比萨外送员的工作风险很大，但报酬微薄。尽管并没有统计数据展示他们职业的危险性，但每一个快递外送员都深知危险无时不在，因此，他们社交中的核心话题之一，就是谈论这些潜在的风险，以及如何避免风险[在18个月的观察期中，一共发生了2起被劫事件，8起被跟踪事件，4起交通事故]结论3：比萨外送员的亚文化特征——尊崇男性气概|充斥着种族和性别偏见[如常常将自己工作中面临的风险归咎于来自种族和族群社区的成员，但其实并无证据支持这种说法；常常吹嘘自己如何如何有异性缘，夸口说自己如何受到女性顾客的垂青]结论4：比萨外送员的一个类型学喜剧演员[TheComedian]：他们以幽默的心态减缓到高风险区外送所引发的焦虑感冒险家[TheAdventurer]：他们喜欢冒险，并借由危险状况的处理来检验自我们能力拒绝现实者[TheDenier]：他们通过说服自己没有风险或风险不大来减轻内心的焦虑宿命论者[TheFatalist]：他们明白存在哪些风险，但不做任何努力来回避这些风险老鸟[ThePro]：他们在这一行干了很久，经验丰富，已经做到管理层，或在多家店服务过结论5：这个次级团体的成员主要依靠次级群体的认可，而非金钱报酬，来获得成就满足感；因此，次级团体的成员资格和身份，对于他们来说就显得格外重要了内群和外群WilliamGrahamSumner[1906]:Anin-groupcanbedefinedasanygrouporcategorytowhichpeoplefeeltheybelong.Theveryexistenceofanin-groupimpliesthatthereisanout-groupviewedas‘they’or‘them’,agrouporcategorytowhichpeoplefeeltheydonotbelong,ortowhichtheyfeelantagonistic,orbywhichtheyfeelthreatened,orfeeldifferentculturallyorracially.内外群关系的三大特征社会正统与歧视：内群体通常觉得自己比外群体正统且更优越对抗性价值观：内群体认为恰当的行为，外群体往往认为不能接受双重标准：同样一种行为，外群体做不行，但内群体做行，如恐怖主义攻击[如以红色恐怖还击白色恐怖]内外群对抗关系的负面社会效应作为外群体的弱势群体的极端反抗[Rejectedadolescentsinschoolsnation-wide,overwhelmedbypersonalandfamilyproblems,peergrouppressures,academicresponsibilities,ormediaimagesofviolence,havestruckoutagainstmorepopularclassmates.]挑衅外群体的内群体成员，一般来说，其人格上会表现出一定的缺陷[suchassufferingfromlimitedtimeandattentionfromworkingparents,thusaproactiveactionisservedasameansofelicitingattentionfromeithertheout-grouporthein-group]焦点小组RobertK.Merton[1940]:Focusgroupsarecomposedof10to15peopleassembledbyaresearchertodiscussapredeterminedtopic,suchasanewconsumerproductorcommunityneeds.Itwasfirstdevelopedtoevaluatetherelativeeffectivenessofradioadvertising.Guidedbyamoderator,themembers,whoareselectedtoberepresentativeofthegeneralpublic,offertheirownopinionsonthetopicandreacttoothermembers’views.过去60年里的主要使用领域AdvertisersCorporations最近复兴的社会科学兴趣CommunityopinionWorkplacemorale…参考群体Sociologistscallanygroupthatindividualsuseasastandardforevaluatingthemselvesandtheirownbehaviorareferencegroup.Ahighschoolstudentwhoaspiretojoinasocialcircleofhip-hopmusicdevoteeswillpatternhisorherbehaviorafterthatofthegroup.参考群体的三大作用参考群体设定并强化了某种行为标准和信仰[settingandenforcingstandardsofbehaviorandbeliefs]参考群体成为评价行为和认知差距的参照系[servingasastandardagainstwhichpeoplecanmeasurethemselvesandothers]参考群体促进了预期社会化[helpingtheprocessofanticipatorysocialization]小群体Thetermsmallgroupreferstoagroupsmallenoughforallmemberstointeractsimultaneously—thatis,totalkwithoneanotheroratleastbewellacquainted.如何区分首属[初级]群体/次级群体/小群体？Amanufacturer[suchasP&G]maybringtogetheritsseven-memberregionalsalestafftwiceayearforanintensivesalesconference.Thesalespeople,wholiveindifferentcitiesandrarelyseeoneanother,constituteasmallsecondarygroup,notaprimarygroup.小群体都是非正式的和无结构的吗？Venkatesh[2000]:AsanethnographicstudyofstreetgangsinChicagohaverevealed,therearedistinctandpredictableprocessesatworkinthefunctioningofsmallgroup.Anelaboratestructureresemblingthatofthefamilybusinesswasfound…Besidesstaffingtheeconomicnetworkofthedrugtrade,gangmembersdeveloprelationshipswithtalentleadersinpublichousingprojectsandparticipateinnon-delinquentsocialactivitiesimportanttothemaintenanceoftheirauthorityintheneighborhood.群体规模及其内部结构群体规模的社会效应群体规模和关系的亲密性[groupsizeandintimacy]：群体规模越大，内部关系的亲密程度越低，人际关系的工具性程度就越高群体规模和领导权分配[groupsizeandleadership]：群体规模越大，每一个成员的话语权就越小，每一个成员的意见就越不重要，核心成员就越有可能成为影响力很大的领导层一员群体规模和责任分配[groupsizeandresponsibilitydistribution]：群体规模越大，每个人都在期待着其他人去承担高成本的责任行动，因此，规避责任的现象在群体规模变大的情况下最容易出现[这也就解释了为什么公共场合中，见义勇为行为的稀缺性]GeorgSimmel：形式社会学和群体内部结构两人关系[dyad]：atwo-membergroup.Strength:levelofintimacyWeakness:threatsoftermination三人关系[triad]:athree-membergroup.Thenewmemberhasmanywaysofinteractingwithandinfluencingthedynamicsofthegroup.Thenewpersonmayplayaunifyingrole.[新生婴儿稳定了夫妻关系]Aermayalsoplayamediatingrole.[三人宿舍里总有个和事老]Amemberofthetriadmaychoosetoemployadivide-and-rulestrategy.[分而治之，挑动其他两人斗，自己从中渔利]联盟[coalition]：Acoalitionisatemporaryorpermanentalliancegearedtowardacommongoal.WilliamJuliusWilson[1999]hasdescribedcommunity-basedorganizationinTexasthatincludeWhitesandLatinos,workingclassandaffluent,whohavebandedtogethertoworkforimprovedsidewalks,betterdrainagesystems,andcomprehensivestreetpaving.IV了解组织正式组织[Formalorganizations]科层制的核心特征[Keycharacteristicsofabureaucracy]科层制和组织文化[Bureaucracyandorganizationalcultures]志愿组织[Voluntaryassociations]组织变迁[Organizationalchanges]正式组织Aformalorganizationisagroupdesignedforaspecialpurposeandstructuredformaximumefficiency.邮政服务[UPS]快餐连锁店[McDonald’s]乐团[BostonPopOrchestra]大学…Formalorganizationsfulfillanenormousvarietyofpersonalandsocialneedsandshapethelivesofeveryoneofus.Formalorganizationshaveesuchadominantsocialforcethatwemustcreateorganizationstosuperviseotherorganizations[证监会/保监会/银监会/电监会……]正式组织中的先赋地位特征Ely[1995]：女律师占据重要职位比例，将会影响不同律师事务所内女性律师的自我形象和她们对职业成功的预期科层制及其核心特征Abureaucracyisacomponentofformalorganizationthatusesrulesandhierarchicalrankingtoachieveefficiency.Rowsofdesksstaffedbyseeminglyfacelesspeople[去人格化]Endlesslinesandforms[文牍主义]Impossiblycomplexlanguage[专业霸权]Frustratingencounterswithredtape[监控和纪律]MaxWeber[1922]：关于科层制的理想型Divisionoflabor[劳动分工]:specialexpertsperformspecialtasks隐含问题：异化[alienation]/受训的无能[trainedincapacity]Hierarchyofauthority[权威等级]:eachpositionissupervisedbyahigherauthority隐含问题：底层无权[powerlessnessoftherank-and-file]/掩盖组织失误[concealmentoforganizationalmistakes]Writtenrulesandregulations[成文规则]:offeremployeesclearstandardsforanadequateorexceptionalperformance隐含问题：阻碍创新[hinderedcreativity]/目标替代[goaldisplacement]Impersonality[去人格化]:performdutieswithoutpersonalfeelings隐含问题：异化[alienation]/降低忠诚度[discourageloyaltytocompany]Employmentbasedontechnicalqualifications[技术理性]:againstfarvoritismandnepotism隐含问题：PeterPrinciple[everyemployeewithinahierarchytendstorisetohisorherlevelofpetence]科层化[Bureaucratizationasaprocess]Sociologistsusethetermbureaucratizationtorefertotheprocessbywhichagroup,organization,orsocialmovementesincreasinglybureaucratic.科层化的具体例子管辖权混乱：大型组织中[政府机构或商业机构]，你需要跑遍10—12个办公室，才会发现，到底你的事该归谁管过度程式化：美国加州的一家连锁家政公司规定，清洁卫生间一共有22个步骤，全部写在工作手册上NASA的官僚组织文化：在成本考虑和进度压力这两重组织优先性下，NASA的内部组织文化并不鼓励下属部门表达对安全风险的顾虑寡头统治的铁律[Ironlawofoligarchy]RobertMichels[1915]：关于社会党和工会的研究Thisconceptdescribeshowevenademocraticorganizationwilleventuallydevelopintoabureaucracyruledbyafew.Peoplewhoachieveleadershiprolesusuallyhavetheskills,knowledge,orcharismaticappealtodirect,ifnotcontrol,others.Therankandfileinanorganizationorasocialmovementlooktoleadersfordirectionandtherebyreinforcetheprocessofrulebyafew.Inaddition,membersofanoligarchyarestronglymotivatedtomaintaintheirleadershiproles,privileges,andpower.当代欧美各国的工会，都带有明显的寡头统治[或少数人治理]的特征科层制和组织文化科层制作为一种社会结构，如何影响在其中工作的普通人科学管理学派[ScientificManagementApproach]Workersaremotivatedalmostentirelybyeconomicrewards.Onlyphysicalconstraintslimitworker’sproductivity.Workersarethenequivalenttomachines.Managementattemptstoachievemaximumworkefficiencythroughscientificplanning,establishedperformancestandards,andcarefulsupervision.人际关系学派[HumanRelationsApproach]Emphasizetheroleofpeople,communication,andparticipationwithinabureaucracy.Planningfocusedonworker’sfeelings,frustrations,andemotionalneedforjobsatisfactions.Stressthelessformalaspectsoforganizationallife:informalgroupsandsocialnetworkswithinorganizationsdeveloppartlyasaresultofpeople’sabilitytocreatemoredirectformsofcommunicationundertheformalstructure.志愿组织Voluntaryassociationsareorganizationsestablishedonthebasisofcommoninterests,whosemembersvolunteerorevenpaytoparticipate.志愿组织构成了公益慈善事业的主体。AACFYDYMCAPoliticalpartyandlaborunionOccupationalsocietiesMutualaidorganizations…关于志愿组织的其他社会学评论性别分离[segregationbygender]：一半以上志愿组织由女性组成一人拥有多个志愿组织身份[cross-cuttingsolidarity]对女性志愿工作的承认具有重要社会意义[therecognitionofwomen’sunpaidwork]组织变迁来自其他社会机构[尤其是政府]的变迁缘由Governments’regulatorystatutes,licensingprocedures,taxlaws,andtheircontractingforgoodsandservices如政府关于残疾人就业的新法案很可能影响到组织的雇佣政策来自组织内部的目标变迁AchurchstartsabasketballleagueAnoilcompanypurchasesamoviestudioAtobaccofirmbeginstomanufactureballpointpen组织目标多元化[GoalMultiplication]Ittakesplacewhenanorganizationexpandsitspurposes,generallyasaresultofchangingsocialoreconomicconditionsthatthreatentheorganization’ssurvival.组织目标继替[GoalSuccession]Theprocessthroughwhichanorganizationidentifiesanentirelynewobjectivebecauseitstraditionalgoalshavebeenrealizedordenied.组织目标多元化：YMCA的例子1850s:providingBiblestudyandtentrevivalmeetings1900s:offeringgymnasiumfacilitiesandresidencequarters1960s:involvinginprovidingemploymenttrainingandjuveniledelinquencyprograms[andthusreceivingsubstantialfundingfromthefederalgovernment,adramaticchangeforanorganizationwhoseeshadpreviouslycomesolelyfrommembershipfeesandcharitablecontributions]Currently:itsrangeofactivitiesincludessocialserviceprogramsforthedisabled,daycarecenters,fitnessclassesforofficeworkers,residencedormitoriesforcollegestudentsandsingleadults,‘learningforliving’classesforadults,andseniorcitizens’facilities.V技术对工作场所的影响在家办公[muting]工作场所中的电子通讯技术[electroniccommunicationsatworkplace]在家办公mutersareemployeeswhoworkfull-timeorpart-timeathomeratherthaninanoutsideoffice,andwhoarelinkedtotheirsupervisorsandcolleaguesthroughcomputerterminals,phones,andfaxmachines.从社会学视角看‘在家办公’负面效应：sinceworkplaceisama