海工产品检验员手册

海工产品检验员手册〔焊接〕S．No.CONTENTS名目TITLES标题备注1WelderPositionQualificationandRange 焊工位置评定及范围2WeldingPositions 焊接位置3AWSspecificationsforelectrodes AWS焊条标准4Electrodedepositionefficiencyandstublossfactors焊条熔敷效率和损耗系数5Typicalshieldedmetalarcelectrodeorientationandweldingtechniqueforcarbon6steelelectrodes炭钢手工电弧焊条操作的典型方位及技能Suggestedamperagerangesforcarbonsteelandlow-alloysteelelectrodes 碳钢和低合金钢焊条的推举电流范围7TroubleshootingmechanicalproblemsencounterdinGMAWandFCAW-G8GMAW和FCAW-G 焊接中存在的机械问题与修复Welddiscontinuitycausesandremedies-cracks裂纹导致的焊缝不连续的返修9Welddiscontinuitycausesandremedies-inclusion夹渣导致的焊缝不连续的返修10Welddiscontinuitycausesandremedies-incompletefusion未熔合导致的焊缝的不连续的返修11Welddiscontinuitycausesandremedies-incompletejointpenetration未焊透导致的焊缝不连续的返修12Welddiscontinuitycausesandremedies-overlap焊瘤导致的焊缝不连续的返修13Welddiscontinuitycausesandremedies-porosity密集气孔导致的焊缝不连续的翻修14Welddiscontinuitycausesandremedies-undercut咬边导致的焊缝不连续的返修15Weldprofiles焊缝外形16Filletweldmeasurement角焊缝的测量17Dimensionalconsiderations尺寸检查18PropercareandhandingofSMAWelectrodesSMAW焊条的正确治理与发放19Specialprecautionsforlow-hydrogenelectrodes低氢焊条治理的特别要求20Dryingconditionforweldingconsumable焊接耗材的枯燥条件一、Welderpositionqualificationandrange焊工位置评定及范围Qualification Rangequalified评定范围评定3F1F＊2F＊3F＊4F5F1G2G3G4G5G6G6GR4F3G＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊4G＊＊＊＊＊5G＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊6G＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊6GR＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊＊Weldingpositions—groove(plate)焊接位置—坡口〔板〕1G 2G3G 4GWeldingpositions—fillet(plate)焊接位置—角焊缝〔板〕1F(FLAT平焊) 2F(HORIZONTAL横焊)3F(VERTICAL立焊) 4F(OVERHEAD仰焊)Weldingpositions–pipe焊接位置—管1G ROTATED旋转2GWeldingpositions–pipe(continued)焊接位置—管5G6G 6GR;T.K.Y连接二、AWSSpecifications forelectrodesAWS焊条标准Typeofelectrode焊条类型

AWSspecificationsAWS标准SMAW FCAW SAW GTAW,GMAWCarbonsteel碳钢5.15.205.175.18Lowalloysteel低合金钢5.55.295.235.28Stainlesssteel不锈钢5.45.225.95.9,5.22Aluminiumanditsalloy铝和铝合金5.35.10Copperanditsalloy铜和铜合金5.65.7Nickelanditsalloy镍和镍合金5.115.145.14三、Electrodedepositionefficiencyandstublossfactors焊条的熔敷效率和损耗系数CLASS等级AVERAGEEFFICIENCY*平均熔敷效率STUBLOSS**端头损耗E601063.8%STUB〔剩余长度〕5/32E6010 14inE601168.5%LENGTH %DEPOSIT〔沉淀物〕%LOSSE601266.9%2in 63.836.2E601366.8%3in 58.541.5E701464.6%4in 53.246.8E701662.8%5in 47.952.1E701869.5%6in 42.657.4E602065.2%WEIGHTOFWELDMETAL(焊接金属重量)E702466.8%EFFICIENCY熔敷效率＝WEIGHTOFELECTRODEUSEDINCLUDINGSTUBE7027〔使用焊条的重量，包括剩余局部〕68.3%* INCLUDES2inSTUBLOSS包括剩余局部的2in**E6010IS71.57%EFFICIENCY,LOSSDUETOSLAGSPATTERANDSMOKE E6010熔敷效率只71。57%，由于焊渣、飞溅和烟的损失四、Typicalshieldedmetalarcelectrodeorientationandweldingtechniqueforcarbonsteelelectrodes碳钢手工电弧焊条操作的典型方位与技能(接头类型)welding焊接位置degrees角度degrees*运条角度welding焊接技能Groove坡口Flat平焊905-10*Backhand反手Groove坡口Horizontal横焊80-1005-10Backhand反手Groove坡口Vertical-up立向上905-10Backhand反手Groove坡口Overhead仰脸905-10Backhand反手Fillet 角焊Horizontal横焊455-10*Backhand反手Fillet 角焊Vertical-up立向上35-555-10Forehand正手Fillet 角焊Overhead仰脸30-455-10Backhand反手Typeofjoint Positionof Workangle Travelangle Techniqueof*Travelanglemaybe10to30forTypeofjoint Positionof Workangle Travelangle Techniqueof对于重铁粉药皮的焊条运条角度可以成10-30度的角五、Suggestedamperagerangeforcarbonsteelandlow-alloysteelelectrodesElectrodeElectrode焊条Diameter(in)尺寸〔英寸〕Amperage(A)电流E6010and…E60113/3250-701/8100-1305/32140-1703/16160-1907/32190-230E60121/8100-1305/32165-2003/16220-2407/32275-3201/4320-380E60133/3260-751/8100-1355/32140-1803/16180-2207/32250-290E70183/3270-1101/8120-1605/32150-2003/16200-2757/32250-340E70241/8140-1805/32180-2403/16245-2907/327/321/4320-360400-450六、TroubleshootingmechanicalproblemsencounteredGMAWandFCAW-GGMAW和FCAW-G 焊接中存在的机械问题与修复Problem问题 Possiblecause可能存在的缘由 Remedy修复Irregularwirefeedand Insufficientdriverollpressure送丝滚轮burnback送丝不均及压力缺乏烧穿 Contacttubepluggedorworn焊嘴堵塞或者损坏Kinkedelectrodewire焊丝打结Coiledguncable把线缠绕Conduitlinerdirtyorworn导管衬垫太脏或者损坏Conduittoolong送丝软管太长

Adjust调整Cleanorreplace清洁或者更换Cutout,replacespool去除打结局部更换线轴Straightencable,hangthewirefeeder捋直把线，将送丝装置停顿Cleanorreplace清洁或更换Shortenorusepush-pulldrivesystem截短或者用自动伸缩系统Electrodewirewrapsaround drive

Excessivefeedrollpressure送丝滚轮压力过大

Adjust调整roll(‘birdnesting’)Incorrectconduitlinerorcontacttip衬垫Matchlinerandcontacttriptoelectrodesize使用在送丝滚轮和软管进口处发生卷曲或打结

或者导嘴不匹配导致Misaligneddriverollorwireguides送丝滚轮和导丝装置不在一条线上Restrictioningunorguncable焊枪或把线受阻

与焊丝尺寸全都的衬垫和导嘴Checkandalignproperly检查并正确调整Removerestriction去除阻力Heavilyoxidizedweld Air/waterleaksingunandcable空气或deposit熔敷金属严峻水渗入焊枪或把线中氧化 Restrictionshieldgasflow保护气体流淌受限

Checkforleaksandrepairorreplaceasnecessary必需检查漏点并修理，或更换Checkandcleannozzle检查清洁焊枪嘴Electrode wire stops Excessorinsufficientdriverollpressure Adjust调整feedingwhilewelding 送丝滚轮压力过大或者缺乏在焊接当中停顿送丝 Wiredriverollsmisalignedorworn送丝Realignand/orreplace重对接或者更换滚轮方向偏离或者损坏Linerorcontacttubeplugged衬垫或软管堵塞Wirefeedsbutnogas Gascylinderisempty气瓶内气体缺乏甚flows送丝时没有保 至没气护气流入

Cleanorreplace清洁或更换Replaceandpurgelinesbeforewelding焊接前更换气瓶Gascylindervalueclosed气瓶阀门关闭Flowmeternotadjusted气体计量表未调整Restrictioningaslineornozzle气管或枪口被堵塞Porosityin the weld Failedgasvalvesolenoid电磁气阀失灵bead焊接中消灭气孔Gascylindervalveclosed气瓶阀门关闭Insufficientshieldinggasflow 保护气体流量缺乏Leaksingassupplylines(includingthegun)气管泄漏〔包括焊枪〕

Opencylindervalve翻开气瓶阀门Adjusttogiveflowspecifiedintheprocedure 依据制定的调整程序调整气体流量Checkandclean检查并清理Repairorreplace修复或者更换Turnvalveon翻开阀门Checkforrestrictionsingaslineornozzleandcorrect检查受限气管或喷嘴并订正Check for leaks(especially at connections)andcorrect查找泄漏并修复〔特别留意连接处〕Wire feed motoroperatesbutwiredoesnotfeed送丝器启动，但是焊丝并未伸出Weldinggunoverheats焊枪发热

Insufficientdriverollpressure送丝滚轮压力缺乏Incorrectwirefeedrolls送丝滚轮不匹配Excessivepressureonwirespoolbrake引线卷轴的制动压力过大Restrictionintheconduitlinerorgun 焊枪与软管不匹配Incorrectlinerorcontacttube软管与导丝接头不匹配Pinchedorcloggedcoolantline冷却管受挤压或者堵塞Lowcoolantlevelinpumpreservoir冷却液低于泵以下Waterpumpnotfunctioningcorrectly水泵不能正常工作

Adjust调整Matchfeedrollstowiresizeandtype使用尺寸型号全都的送丝滚轮Decreasebrakepressure减小制动压力Checklinerandcontacttip检查接头垫片Cleanand/orreplace清理或者更换Checkandreplacewithcorrectsize检查更换适宜的尺寸Checkandcorrect检查修正Checkandaddcoolantasnecessary依据要求检查增加冷却液Checkandrepairorreplace检查并修理或者更换七、TroubleshootingelectricalproblemsencounteredinGMAWandFCAW-G GMAWandFCAW-G焊接中电气问题的修复Problem问题Difficult arc starting起弧困难

Possiblecause可能存在的缘由Wrongpolarity电路错误Poorworkleadconnection工作导线连接

Remedy修复Checkpolarity;reverseleadsifnecessary 检查电路，假设需要颠倒导线不好Irregularwirefeedand Powercircuitfluctuations电压不稳定burnbackl送丝不均，Polaritywrong电路错误烧穿Welding cables Cablesaretoosmallortoolong 电缆太overheating焊接时电细或者太长缆发热 Cableconnectionsloose 电缆连接松弛

Secureworkleadconnection正确连接Checklinevoltage检查电压Checkpolarity;reverseleadsifnecessary 检查电路，假设需要颠倒导线Checkcurrentcarryingrequirements—replaceorshortenifnecessary检查电流输送要求——更换或者缩短假设需要Tighten紧固No wire feed speed Brokenorloosewiresincontrolcircuit Checkandrepairifnecessary假设需要检查修复control 送丝速度控掌握装置损坏或松散 ReplaceP.C.board更换掌握面板制装置损坏 BadP.C.boardingovernor掌握面板损坏Unstablearc电弧不稳Cableconnectionsareloose 电缆连接松弛

Tightenconnections紧固线路Electrode won’t feed不送丝

Controlcircuitfuseblown掌握系统保险丝损坏Fuseblowninpowersource电源保险丝损坏Defectiveguntriggerswitchorbrokenwireleads焊把触发开关损坏或者导线连接断开Drivemotorburnedout驱动电机烧坏

Repairfuse修理保险丝Replacefuse更换保险丝Checkconnections;replaceswitch检查线路;更换开关Checkandreplace检查更换Wirefeedsbutnogas Failureofgasvalvesolenoid气阀螺旋管Replace更换flows送丝时没有保 失灵 Checkandrepairifnecessary检查假设需要进展护气流入 Loose or broken wires to gas valve 修理solenoid气阀螺旋管松动或者损坏Electrodewirefeedsbutisnotenergized(noarc)焊丝不产生电弧

Poorworkpiececonnection焊件连接不好Loosecableconnections导线连接松散Primarycontactorcoilorpointsdefective掌握继电器的触点烧损或其线圈烧损Contactorcontrolleadsbroken电流接触器的掌握电路损坏

Tightenifloose;cleanworkofpaint,rust,etc.固定;清理焊接区域的油漆,刷锈等Tighten拧紧Repairorreplace修理或者更换Repairorreplace修理或者更换Porosityinweld 焊缝产生气孔

Looseorbrokenwiretogassolenoid Repairorreplace修理或者更换valve气阀螺旋管松动或已损坏八、Cracks裂纹Acrackisdefinedas“Afracturetypediscontinuitycharacterizedbyasharptipandahighratiooflengthandwidthtoopeningdisplacement.”Cracksareusuallyconsideredthemostseverediscontinuitybecauseoftheirtendencytopropagateunderstress.Cracksareusuallyfurtherdescribedbytheirlocationgeometry,timeofoccurrence,orcommonusageterms;seefigurebelowforAWScrackterminology.裂纹被定义为:“断裂形不连续,表现为端部锋利的长宽比很高的位移开裂.”裂纹通常被认为是严峻的不连续,由于在应力的作用下将会延裂纹方向延长.通常依据裂纹消灭的位置和消灭的时间或者常用的使用术语进展描述；见下面的插图：AWS裂纹术语学.(A) (B)LEGEND:1.CRATERCRACK弧坑裂纹2.FACECRACK外表裂纹3.HEAT-AFFECTEDZONECRACK热影响区裂纹4.LAMELLARTEAR层状撕裂5.LONGITUOINALCRACK纵向裂纹6.ROOTCRACK根部裂纹7.ROOTSURFACECRACK根部外表8.THROATCARCK9.TOECRACK10.TRANSVERSECRACK横向裂纹11.UNDERBEADCRACK母才内部裂纹12.WELDINTERFACECRACK焊接熔合面裂纹13.WELDMETALCRACK焊缝裂纹Commoncausesandremediesofcracking通常状况下消灭裂纹的缘由及修复Causes:weldmetaljoint 缘由:焊接金属接头Highlyrigidjoint高强度接点Excessivedilution过度稀释Defectiveelectrodes焊条损坏Poorfit-up组对不当Smallweldbead焊缝太小Highsulfurbasemetal含硫很高的母材Angulardistortion角变形

Remedies:weldmetalcracking修复:焊接金属裂纹Preheat预热Relieveresidualstressesmechanically(peening)机械去除剩余应力(锤击)Minimizeshrinkagestressesusingbacksteporblockweldingsequence实行分段退焊或者分层退焊的方法减小收缩应力Changeweldingcurrentandtravelspeed检查焊接电流和运行速度Weldwillcoveredelectrodenegative;butterthejointfacespriortowelding焊接承受药皮焊条直流反接，焊接前接头外表堆焊Changetonewelectrode;bakeelectrodestoremovemoisture 更换焊条,烘烤焊条去除水汽Reducerootopening;builduptheedgeswithweldmetal.increaserootopening减小根部间隙;使用焊接金属堆焊.增大根部间隙Increaseelectrodesize;raiseweldingcurrent;reducetravelspeed增加焊条尺寸,增加焊接电流,降低焊接速度Usefillermetallowinsulfur使用低硫填充金属Changetobalancedweldingonbothsidesofjoint 在接头俩边承受对称焊接Cratercracking弧坑裂纹 Fillcraterbeforeextinguishingthearc;useaweldingcurrentdecaydevicewhenterminatingtheweldbead在电弧熄灭前将弧坑填满,在焊接完毕时使用焊接电流衰减装置Causes:heat-affectedzone缘由: Remedies:heat-affectedzone修复:热影响区热影响区Hydrogeninweldingatmosphere焊接环境中含氢Hotcracking热裂纹Lowductility延展性低Highresidualstresses很高的剩余应力Highhardness高硬度Brittlephasesinthemicrostructure在宏观显微构造下呈易碎的相图

Uselow-hydrogenweldingprocess;preheatandholdfor2hourafterweldingorpostweldheattreatimmediately使用低氢焊接程序;焊前预热并且在焊后缓冷俩小时或者马上承受焊后热处理Uselowheatinput;depositthinlayers;changebasemetaland/orfillermetal降低热输入;减薄层接焊道;更换母材和(或)填充金属Usepreheat;annealbasemetalpriortowelding使用预热;在焊接前母材退火处理Redesignweldment;changeweldingsequence;applyintermediatestress-reliefheattreatment重设计焊接件;转变焊接次序;应用热处理的方法消退应力Preheat:increaseheatinput;heattreatwithoutcoolingtoroomtemperature预热;增加热输入;温度不低于室温时进展热处理Solutionheattreatpriortowelding在焊接前通过加热固熔退火九、Inclusions夹渣Inclusionsaredefinedas ‘entrappedforeignsolidmaterial,suchasslag,flux,tungsten,oroxide.”Theinclusionsmaybefoundassingleparticles,alignedparticles.Slaginclusionsarefrequentlyfoundontheweldsurfaces,oralongthetoesoftheweldduetoimpropercleaningtechniques.Tungsteninclusionsareusuallysubsurface.Examplesofinclusionsareshownbelow.InclusionsonthesurfacecanbedetectedbyVT;subsurfaceinclusionsrequireUTorRT.Slaginclusions(darkenedareas)内部夹渣〔发暗的区域〕Repairsofinclusionsonthesurfacerequireremovalbygougingorgrinding,weldingifrequiredandreinspectionbyappropriateNDTmethod.subsurfaceinclusionsrequireremovalbygougingorgrinding.followedbyweldrepairandreinspection.夹渣被定义为:“陷在焊缝中的外界固体物质,比方焊渣,焊剂,钨,或氧化物.夹渣可能以单个颗粒或线形颗粒消灭.消灭在焊缝内部。在外表的夹渣可以通过目视检查来觉察；内部夹渣需要通过超声波或者X射线来检查觉察。外表的夹渣返修可以通过气刨或者打磨去除，修补处假设需要可以使用适当的NDT补并且重检验。CommonCausesandRemediesofSlagInclusions通常状况下消灭夹渣的缘由及返修Causes缘由Failuretoremoveslag没有清理焊渣Entrapmentofrefractoryoxides高熔点的氧化物Tungstenintheweldmetal焊接金属中含钨Improperjointdesign接头设计不合理Oxideinclusions氧化物夹渣

Remedies修复Cleansurfaceandpreviousweldbead在焊前清理焊道Powerwirebrushthepreviousweldbead在施焊前用动力钢丝刷清理焊道Avoidcontactbetweentheelectrodeandthework;uselargerelectrode极Increasegrooveangleofjoint增大坡口对接角度Providepropergasshielding使用正确的保护气Slagfloodingaheadofthewelding Repositionworktopreventlossofslagcontrol通过重arc焊渣溢流到焊接电弧的前面 装配来掌握焊渣的流失Poor electrode manipulative Changeelectrodeorfluxtoimproveslagcontrol 通过更technique焊条操作技术落后 换焊条或焊剂来掌握焊渣Entrapped pieces of electrode Useundamagedelectrodes使用未损坏的焊条covering焊条的药皮脱漏十、Incompletefusion未熔合Incompletefusionisdefinedas”Awelddiscontinuityinwhichfusiondidnotoccurbetweenweldandfusionfacesoradjoiningweldbeads.”incompletefusion(1F)canoccuronbothgrooveweldsandfilletweldswherethewelddoesnotextendtothejointroot.seethefigurebelow.未熔合被定义为：焊缝和坡口面或者相邻焊缝面未发生熔合的焊接不连续。未熔合〔1F〕消灭在坡口焊和填角焊中的接头根部。见以下图：(A)〔B〕 〔C〕DetectionofincompletefusionusingVTispossibleifthediscontinuitylocationisvisibleonthesurface;obliqueanglelightingand10magnificationaidtheinspector.Generally,1FsubsurfaceandisfoundusingUTorRTmethods.假设未熔合明显的在外表可以通过目视检验觉察；从斜10UT和RT来觉察。Commoncausesandremediesofincompletefusion通常产生未熔合的缘由及修复Causes缘由Insufficientheatinput,wrongtypeofsizeofelectrode,improperjointdesign,orCommoncausesandremediesofincompletefusion通常产生未熔合的缘由及修复Causes缘由Insufficientheatinput,wrongtypeofsizeofelectrode,improperjointdesign,orinadequategasshielding热输入不适宜Incorrectelectrodeposition焊条角度不正确Remedies修复Followcorrectweldingprocedurespecification依据正确的焊接程序施焊〔WPS〕Maintainproperelectrodeposition保持焊条的正确角度Weldmetalrunningaheadofthearc焊缝金属流到了电弧的前边Trappedoxidesorslagonweldgrooveorweldface 焊接坡口或者焊缝外表有氧化物或者焊渣

Repositionworklowercurrentorincreaseweldtravelspeed重装配降低电流或者加快焊接速度Cleanweldsurfacepriortowelding在焊接前清洁焊缝外表十一、Incompletejointpenetration未熔透Incompletejointpenetrationisdefinedas“Ajointconditioninagrooveweldinwhichweldmetaldoesnotextendthroughthejointthickness.”Notethatitappliestogrooveweldsonly,notfilledwelds.Examplesofincompletejointpenetration(IJP)areshowninthefollowingfigures.未熔透被定义为：在坡口焊中焊接金属没有完全穿透坡口的接头厚度。以上定义仅适应于坡口焊，填角焊不适用。未熔透实例见以下图：IncompletejointpenetrationcaneasilybefoundbyVTiftheroodofthegrooveweldisvisible;obliqueanglelightingassistsinitsdetection.Forgrooveweldswiththerootnotvisible.UTorRTarerequiredfordetection.RepairsforIJP,whenaccesstotherootofthegrooveweldispossible:未熔透假设发生在外表通过目视检验会很简洁,斜角方向用光照耀可以帮助觉察缺陷。假设坡口根部不简洁观察，就需要用UT或者RT来检查。返修未熔透，当在坡口根部时：gougeorgrindroottoanoval,openshape,permittingaccesstoroot.气刨或者打磨根部成椭圆型，外形接近根部焊缝weld,followedbyappropriateNDTmethod.NDT方法来检验Repairsforup,whereaccesstotherootisnotpossible:当不能接近根部时从上面返修gougeorgrindfromtheweldfacetheremoveentirewelddowntojointroot从焊缝外表气刨或者打磨至坡口的接头根部weldfollowedbyappropriateNDTmethod.NDT方法检验Commoncausesandremediesofincompleteofincompletejointpenetration通常导致未熔透的缘由及修复Causes缘由 Remedies修复Excessivelythickrootfaceorinsufficient Useproperjointgeometry使用适当的接头形式rootopening根部钝边太厚或者根部间隙不够Insufficientheatinput热输入量不够Slagfloodingaheadofweldingarc焊渣溢到焊接电弧的前面

FollowweldingprocedurespecificationWPS焊接Adjustelectrodeorworkposition 调整电极或者焊接方向Electrodediametertoolarge焊条直径太大Misalignmentofsecondsideweld俩边未对准Failuretobackgougewhenspecified在对指定的区域反面气刨失败Bridgingorrootopening支撑或根部间隙

Use smallerelectrodesin root or increase rootopening使用小直径的焊条或者增大根部间隙Improvevisibilityorbackgouge尽可能改进或者反面气刨Backgougetosoundmetalifrequiredinweldingprocedurespecification假设需要依据WPS对母材深度反面气刨Usewiderrootopeningorsmallerelectrodeinrootpass增大根部间隙或者使用小直径焊条封底焊接十二、Overlap焊瘤Overlapisdefinedas“theprotrusionofweldmetalbeyondtheweldtoeorweldroot.”exampleareshownbelowforfilletandgroovewelds.焊瘤被定义为“在焊趾或焊跟处焊接金属外溢突DetectionofoverlapisusuallyfoundbyVTifthesurfacearevisibletotheeye;obliquelightingand10xmagnificationarehelpful.PTandMTmayberequiretoinspectquestionableareas.Repairincluderemovalofoverlapbygougingorgrindingasaminimum,andmayrequireweldrepairstothegougedorareas,followedbyreinspectionusingappropriateNDTmethod.假设焊瘤明显的在外表通常通过目视检验就可以觉察，使用斜光照耀或10倍放大镜检查是格外有用PTMT可能在气刨的区域需要焊接返修，通过适当的NDT方法来重检验。Commoncausesandremediesofoverlap通常产生焊瘤的缘由及返修Causes缘由Slowtravelspeed焊接速度太慢Poorelectrodemanipulation焊条操作太差Gravity重力缘由

Remedies修复Increasetravelspeed提高焊接速度Additionalweldertraining加强焊工的培训Additionalweldertraining加强焊工的培训十三、Porosity气孔Porosity is defined as “cavity – type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment duringsolidificationorinathermalspraydeposit.”Theporositymaybesurfaceorsubsurface,asinglecavityaligned,orclustered,andisrepresentedbythefollowingfigures.气孔被定义为“孔穴型不连续由于气体在金属凝固时或者热量散失前没有溢出形成的内部。以下图描述了单一的线形气孔和密集气孔：外表分散气孔内部密集气孔Commoncausesandremediesofporosity通常导致气孔的缘由及修复Causes缘由 Remedies修复Excessivehydrogen,nitrogen,or Uselow-hydrogenweldingprocess:fillermetalshighinoxygeninweldingatmosphereCommoncausesandremediesofporosity通常导致气孔的缘由及修复Causes缘由 Remedies修复Excessivehydrogen,nitrogen,or Uselow-hydrogenweldingprocess:fillermetalshighinoxygeninweldingatmosphere在焊deoxidizers;increaseshieldinggasflow使用低氢焊接接气体中含大量的氢、氮、氧气 工艺：含高去氧剂的填充金属；增大保护气体的流量Highsolidificationrate凝固速率太高Dirtybasemetal母材不干净Dirtyfillerwire填充焊丝不干净

Usepreheatorincreaseheatinput 使用焊前预热或者增加热输入量。Cleanjointfacesandadjacentsurfaces清洁接头面及相邻区域Usespeciallycleanedandpackagedfilledwire,andstoreitincleanarea使用特定包装的填充焊丝个干净的区域Improper arc length , welding Changeweldingconditionsandtechniques转变焊接标准current,orelectrodemanipulation 和技术不正确的弧长，焊接电流，或者操作Volatizationofzincformbrass从黄铜制品中挥发出锌Galvanizedsteel镀锌钢材

Usecopper-siliconfillermetal;reduceheatinput 使用铜硅填充金属；降低热输入Removezincpriortowelding焊前去除锌Use E6010electordesand manipulatethe arc heat tovolatilizethezincaheadofpreheatthemoltenweldpool使用E6010焊条并且在焊接熔池预热之前操作电弧加热使锌挥发Excessive moisture in electrode Use recommended procedure for baking and storingcoveringoronjointsurfaces接头表electrodes依据合理的程序来烘焙和贮存焊条面或者焊条药皮潮气太大 Preheatthebasemetal母材预热Highsulfurbasemetal母材含硫太高

Useelectrodeswithbasicslaggingreactions使用碱性焊条焊接十四、Undercut咬边Undercutisdefinedas“Agroovemeltedintothebasemetaladjacenttotheweldtoeorweldfaceandleftunfilledbyweldmetal.”Examplesareshowninthefollowingfigures.咬边被定义为：邻近焊趾材料或焊根母材处烧熔及未被填充焊接金属填满而形成的凹陷或沟槽。举例见下图：DetectionofsurfaceundercutiseasilyfoundbyVT，usingobliquelighting“catchingathumbnailintheundercutgrooveisalsohelpfulinitsdetection.Measurementofundercutcanbeaccuratelydeterminedusinganundercutgaugeshowninthefollowingfigure. internalundercutongrooveweldswhereaccesstotherootisnotpossiblerequiresUTorRTmethods.通过目视检可以得到一个准确的尺寸，见以下图。内部不行见的咬边需要用UT或者RT来检测。Sotbottomofgageonbasematerial.Sotpointonbottomofundercut.Readdepthonscaleatpointer.Lockingscrewcanbetightenedtoholdreadingforfuturereference. 测量尺下部准确对准母材.指针指向咬边底部,在测量标尺上读取深度尺寸.锁定螺钉可以锁紧标尺便于以后读取数据.Repairstoundercutusuallyrequirelightgrindingandadditionalweldingtoreplacethebasemetalremovedduringtheundercuttingandrepairgrinding.咬边的返修一般通过打磨和补焊来弥补由于咬边及打磨返修造成的母材损伤.测量咬边深度CommonCausesandRemediesUndercut通常造成咬边的缘由及修复Causes缘由Excessiveweldingcurrent焊接电流太高Excessivetravelspeed焊接速度太快Poorelectrodemanipulation焊条操作水平太低

Remedies修复Reduceweldingcurrent降低焊接电流Reducetravelspeed降低焊接速度Additionalweldertraining增加焊工的培训十五、Weldprofiles焊缝外形Visualinspectionisveryusefulindeterminingtheadequacyofweldprofiles;theactualweldsarecomparedwithcodeorspecificationrequirementsregardingconvexityorconcavityforfilletwelds,andfaceandrootreinforcementforgroovewelds.thefollowingprofilesarefoundinAWSD1.1.Structuralweldingcode.Additionallyfilletweldsizescanbedeterminedusingfilletweldgages:目视检验对于鉴定外观成型格外有用;实际焊缝要与标准或者规格书中要求的填角焊缝的凹凸度及坡口焊缝中的加强高来进展比较.下面是关于AWSD1.1钢构造焊接标准中的外观成型。关于填角焊的焊缝尺寸可以使用焊接检验尺来测量。.较好的填角焊缝外形 可以承受的填角焊缝外形NOTE: CONVEXITY. C. OF A WELD OR INDIVIDUALSURFACEBEAD WITHDIMENSION W SHALLNOTEXCEEDTHEVALUEOFTHEFOLLOWINGTABLE:注:A中的凸焊缝中尺寸C或外表单道焊缝尺寸W不得超出下表规定值:MAXIMUMCONVEXITYOFFILLETWELDS最大凸度的角焊缝WIDTHOFWELDFACEOR CINDIVIDYUALSURFACEBEADW单道/多道焊缝外表宽度值W 最大凸度W＜5/16in(8mm) 1/16in(1.6mm)W＞5/16inTOW＜1in(25mm) 1/8in(3mm)W＞1in 3/16in(5mm)(C)UNACCEPTABLEFILLETWELDPROFILES不行承受的填角焊缝外形可承受的坡口对接焊缝的外形NOTE:REINFORCEMENTRSHALLNOEXCEED1/8in(3mm)注:3mm不行承受的坡口对接焊缝的外形十六、FilletWeldMeasurement角焊缝的测量Howtouseweldfilletgage如何使用角焊缝尺PLACEMENT放置BECERTAINBLADEEDGEISSQUAREWITHWELDEDPARTS垂直靠近焊缝的边缘CONVEXWELDS凸形焊缝CONCAVEWELDS凹形焊缝FORCONVEXWELDS:USEBLADEWITHSINGLEARCATAPPROPRIATESIZE,FORCONCAVEWELDS:USEBLADEWITHDOUBLEARCATAPPROPRIATESIZE凸形焊缝测量:选用一个正确尺寸的有单弧的一边;凹形焊缝测量:用一个正确尺寸的有俩个弧的一边.十七、Dimensionalconsiderations尺寸的测量AnimportantaspectofVTisthemeasurementsforsizegeometryandassemblyofweldedstructures.Themanufacturingdrawingswillshow therequiredlengths,thicknesses,diameters,etc,ofthevariouscomponents,aswellasweldsizes.Theinspectorshoulddeterminethedimensionaltolerancesforeachofthemeasurementsspecifiedandconsiderthemduringcomponentmeasurementforconformance.Ifthetolerancesarenotstatedtheinspectorshouldaskforclarification.Oftenthesetolerancesarenotedasminimums,maximums,oradimensionalrangesuchas“1500-1750inches.”TheinspectorshouldalsobeawarethatmeasurementscanbegivenintheUS.Customaryunits,orintheSIormetricunits.外观检查中很重要的一个方面就是焊接构造装配的尺寸测量.在制造图纸中给出了一个包括不同构件在长度,厚度,直径,等方面的要求.检验员必需测量每一个指定尺寸公差并且考虑其是否符合要求.假设公差未标出,检查员应当要求说明状况通常公差被标注成最大值或者是一个尺寸范围例如”1500-1750inches.”检查员需要明白度量单位制，通常可能以美制度量单位,或者英制或者公制给出。Dimensionaldefects尺寸缺陷Incorrectjointpreparation:不正确的接头预备Incorrectjointpenetrationsubjecttovisualinspection,generallybeforeweldingisstarted.Includesout-of-toleranceweldingbevelorgroovedimensions,basemetalmisalignment,andundesirableweldjointfitupconditions.在焊接开头以前依照外观检验不正确的接头,.包括焊接面或坡口尺寸的内部公差,母材未对准及焊接接头组对条件不符合要求.Includedintherequirementsforweldjointpreparationshallbeinspectionforremovalofscale,paintoil,etc.fromtheweldjoint.焊接接头预备要求包括检查去除接头中的水污,油漆,等Partialpenetrationweldjointpreparationsshallbevisuallyinspectedpriortoweldingtoassureproperweldthroatdimensions局部熔透焊接接头装配在焊接前目视检查确保正确的焊喉尺寸Incorrectweldsize不正确的焊缝尺寸Incorrectweldsizesubjecttovisualinspectionincludesundersizedfilletweldlegandunderfilledgrooveweldthroatdimensions.依照外观检验不正确的焊缝尺寸包括角焊缝的焊脚太小及坡口焊接中焊喉未填满.Filletweldsizeshallbedeterminedbymeansofafilletweldgage.填角焊缝尺寸需要通过角焊缝尺的测量来确定Incorrectfinaldimensions最终尺寸错误Incorrectfinaldimensionssubjecttovisualinspectionincludeallconditionsofdimensionalinaccuracies,distortion,andlackofconformitytodesignrequirements.依照外观检验最终尺寸误差包括全部的尺寸错误,变形,已及与设计要求不符.十八、PropercareandhandingofSMAWelectrodes正确的SMAW焊条Toensuresatisfactoryweldquality,itisimportantthattheSMAWelectrodesbehandledandstoredproperlypriortouse.Thecoatingsoftheelectrodehavebeencarefullydesignedtoprovidethenecessaryoperatingcharacteristicsandweldpropertiesrequiredforeachofthetypesofelectrodes.确保满足的焊接质量,在使用前对焊条合理的贮存与治理格外重要.焊条的药皮是依据其具体的操作特性及每一种型号焊条的要求来细心设计的.Theelectrodecoatingsaresubjecttodamagefromimproperhandingandstoragepractices.Thecoatingscancrackandmayfallfromtheelectrodecorewhenexperiencingimpactloads.Thisconditioncanbetheresultofdroppingtheelectrodepackagesduringtransportationofthematerialstothejobsiteorbyhittingthepackageswithanotherobjectwhileinstorageorduringmaterialmovement.Itistheresponsibilityoftheweldertoinspecttheelectrodespriortousetoensurethatthecoatingisintactanddoesnotshowindicationsofdamage.焊条药皮在不正确的管理与贮存中遭到破坏,药皮就可能开裂并且在冲击中脱落.这种状况可能是由于材料在运输到施工现场时包装脱落,或者在储运期间包装受到外力的碰撞.焊工在使用焊条以前有责任检查焊条药皮确保完好无损,没有损坏的迹象.Theelectrodecoatingsarealsohygroscopic,meaningthattheyaresusceptibletoabsorbingmoisturewhenexposedtotheatmosphere.Moisturepick-upinthecoatingcanresultinporosity,lessthanoptimumarecharacteristicsandhydrogeninducedcracking.Theelectrodescanbecomeexposedorifthepackagingbecomesdamagedduringshippingorhanding.焊条药皮大多是吸湿的,所以当焊条被暴露在潮湿的大气中药皮就会受到影响.潮气进入药皮会导致气孔的消灭,降低操作特性,以及氢致裂纹.在运输和保管过程中假设包装破坏焊条就可能暴露.Itistheresponsibilityofthewelderstoprotecttheelectrodeswhileintheirpossession.Forexampleinfoggy,mistyandrainyweatherorinconditionsofhighhumidity,theelectrodesshouldbekeptinaclosedcontainertopreventdirectexposureofthematerialstotheweatherconditions.Itisalsoimperativethattheelectrodesnotbekeptorcarriedinthepocketsofawelder,asexposuretoperspirationorotherbodymoisturemaycausethecoatingtointroduceexcessiveamountsofwaterintotheweld.焊工有责任保护其领用的焊条.比方在雾天,雨天及湿度很高的状况下焊条必需放到封闭的容器中以免之间暴露在露天的环境中..同时规定不允许焊工将焊条放在衣袋中,假设焊条药皮暴露在排汗或者其他有潮气的部位可能导致更多的水分进入到焊缝中.Therecommendationscontainedinthispockethandbookrepresentgoodweldingpractices.Manyweldingcodeshavespecificsrequirementsforhandingelectrodesandforthetimeofelectrodesexposureintheatmosphereduringtheweldingoperation.Thefabricatorisresponsibleforensuringthatthenecessarycoderequirementsarefulfilledforeachjob. 这个手册中包含了很多条在空气中的暴露时间．制造商要为确保每一步工作必需履行相关标准要求而负责．Theelectrodemanufacturerwillhaverecommendationsforprocessingtheirproducts.ValuableinformationcanbeobtainedformthemanufacturersforhandlingusingandreconditioningSMAWelectrodes.焊条的制造商给出了使用他们产品的建议．从生产商那可以得到很多关于ＳＭＡＷ的焊条的使用及再次烘考的重要信息．十九、SpecialPrecautionsforLow-HydrogenElectrodes低氢焊条治理的特别要求Hydrogencanhaveadverseeffectsonweldsinsomesteelsundercertainconditions.Onesourceofthishydrogenismoistureintheelectrodecoverings.Forthisreason,theproperstorage,treatment,andhandlingofelectrodesarenecessary.在某种状况下氢可能对一些钢材的焊接有不利的影响．氢的一个来源就是潮湿的焊条药皮．对于这种状况，正确的贮存，处理，及焊条的治理将是必要的．Electrodesaremanufacturedtowithinacceptablemoisturelimits,consistentwiththetypeofcoveringandstrengthoftheweld metal.Theyarenormallypackagedinacontainerwhichhasbeendesignedtoprovidethedegreeofmoistureprotec