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经济预测与出口管理第1页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二主要内容预测的意义与预测技术的选择时间序列分析平滑技术定性预测技术计量经济模型进出口销售与汇率外汇风险管理与汇率决定因素购买力平价国际贸易:管理视角第2页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二经济分析与决策

需求分析生产和成本分析产品、定价和产出量决策资本支出分析经济、政治与社会环境经营状况(趋势、周期和季节性影响)要素市场状况(资本、劳动和原材料)竞争者反应与策略性反应组织架构与规则限制现金流量风险厂商价值(股东的财富)第3页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二案例4-1—GlobalCrossing公司过剩的光纤传输能力美国光纤网络传输高速数据和声音信号的能力大大超出了电信需求,现有产能的97%闲置。纽约和洛杉矶之间输送1兆B价格1995每年12000美元——2001下降到3000美元——2003年下降到1200美元。信号压缩技术导致产能超过市场增长。100天翻一番。对电信传输量增长过度乐观。2003年1000%——40%。互联网的渗透呈现S形。第4页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二第5页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二一、预测的意义与预测技术选择管理活动的核心问题——预测产品的未来需求、产品的生产成本、销售产品的价格。宏观预测与厂商预测。预测是困难的。两种重要的经济预测:定量预测——8%,给定精确的数据或比率。定性预测——方向与趋势。第6页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二一、预测的意义与预测技术选择预测的最大意义在于对未来不确定性进行某种程度的确定,从而制定发展战略。减少不确定而不能消除不确定。预测的层次:国民经济预测。GDP及其部分;利率;通货膨胀率。产业预测。汽车制造业。企业预测。福特公司。产品预测。FOCUS。第7页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二一、预测的意义与预测技术选择选择预测方法的准则:costsoftheforecastingmethodcomparedwithitsgainscomplexityoftherelationshipsamongvariablestimeperiodinvolvedaccuracyneededinforecastleadtimebetweenreceivinginformationandthedecisiontobemade。第8页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二一、预测的意义与预测技术选择预测的精确性:分析被观察值与预测值之间区别的大小。不同的指标衡量模型的精确性。如可决系数R2。常用的平均预测误差RMSE,越小准确性越高。可选择的预测技术:确定性时间技术、平滑技术、气压技术、调查与民意测验技术、计量经济模型、随机性时间技术、投入产出表预测方法。第9页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二二、时间系列分析主要有三种类型的数据:时间序列数据。横截面数据。面板数据(PannelData)。时间系列数据分为四部分:长期趋势+周期变动+季节效应+随机波动。第10页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二TIME

ToXXXDependentVariableSecularTrendCyclicalVariationForecastedAmountsThedatamayofferseculartrends,cyclicalvariations,seasonalvariations,andrandomfluctuations.第11页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二二、时间系列分析基本的时间系列模型:最简单的时间系列模型,下期与本期一样。调整。长期趋势。图5-3。季节变动。第12页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二NaiveForecastYt+1=YtMethodbestwhenthereisnotrend,onlyrandomerrorGraphsofsalesovertimewithandwithouttrendsWhentrendingdown,theNaïvepredictstoohighNOTrendTrend^timetime第13页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二2.NaïveforecastwithadjustmentsforseculartrendsYt+1=Yt+(Yt-Yt-1)Thisequationbeginswithlastperiod’sforecast,Yt.Plusan‘adjustment’forthechangeintheamountbetweenperiodsYtandYt-1.Whentheforecastistrendingup,thisadjustmentworksbetterthanthepurenaïveforecastmethod.

^第14页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二UsedwhentrendhasaconstantAMOUNTofchange

Yt=a+b•T,where

Yt

aretheactualobservationsand

Tisanumericaltimevariable案例4-2——冰淇淋UsedwhentrendisaconstantPERCENTAGErate LogYt=a+b•T,

wherebisthecontinuouslycompoundedgrowthrate⑴LinearTrendGrowth⑵UsesaSemi-logRegression3.长期趋势^^^第15页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二Suppose:Yt=Y0(1+G)t

wheregistheannualgrowthrateTakethenaturallogofbothsides:LnYt=LnY0+t•Ln(1+G)butLn(1+G)g,theequivalentcontinuouslycompoundedgrowthrateSO:LnYt=LnY0+t•g

LnYt=a

+b

•t

wherebisthegrowthrate

^

^第16页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二NumericalExamples:6observationsMTB>Printc1-c3.SalesTimeLn-sales100.014.60517109.824.69866121.634.80074133.744.89560146.254.98498164.365.10169Usingthissalesdata,estimatesalesinperiod7usingalinearandasemi-logfunctionalform第17页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二TheregressionequationisSales=85.0+12.7TimePredictorCoefStdevt-ratiopConstant84.9872.41735.160.000Time12.65140.620720.380.000s=2.596R-sq=99.0%R-sq(adj)=98.8%TheregressionequationisLn-sales=4.50+0.0982TimePredictorCoefStdevt-ratiopConstant4.504160.00642701.350.000Time0.0981830.00164959.540.000s=0.006899R-sq=99.9%R-sq(adj)=99.9%第18页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二ForecastedSales@Time=7LinearModelSales=85.0+12.7TimeSales=85.0+12.7(7)Sales=173.9Semi-LogModelLn-sales=4.50+0.0982TimeLn-sales=4.50+0.0982

(7)Ln-sales=5.1874Toanti-log:e5.1874=179.0linear第19页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二SalesTimeLn-sales100.014.60517109.824.69866121.634.80074133.744.89560146.254.98498164.365.10169179.0 7semi-log173.9 7linearWhichpredictiondoyouprefer?Semi-logisexponential7第20页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二⑶

DecliningRateofGrowthTrendAnumberofmarketingpenetrationmodelsuseaslightmodificationoftheconstantrateofgrowthmodelInthisform,theinverseoftimeisused

LnYt=b1

b2(1/t)Thisformisgoodforpatterns liketheonetotherightItgrows,butatcontinuouslyadecliningratetimeY第21页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.SeasonalAdjustments:

TheRatiotoTrendMethodTakeratiosoftheactualtotheforecastedvaluesforpastyears.Findtheaverageratio.Thisistheseasonaladjustment

AdjustbythispercentagebymultiplyyourforecastbytheseasonaladjustmentIfaverageratiois1.02,adjustforecastupward2%。调整因子12quartersofdataIIIIIIIVIIIIIIIVIIIIIIIVQuartersdesignatedwithromannumerals.第22页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二LetD=1,if4thquarterand0otherwiseRunanewregression:Yt=a+b•T+c•Dthe“c”coefficientgivestheamountoftheadjustmentforthefourthquarter.ItisanInterceptShifter.With4quarters,therecanbeasmanyasthreedummyvariables;with12months,therecanbeasmanyas11dummyvariablesEXAMPLE:Sales=300+10•T+18•D

12Observationsfromthefirstquarterof2002to2004-IV.

Forecastallof2005.

Sales(2005-I)=430;Sales(2005-II)=440;Sales(2005-III)=450;Sales(2005-IV)=478案例4-3——玛特公司。5.

SeasonalAdjustments:

DummyVariables第23页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二三、平滑技术时间系列的一种形式。重复+随机扰动。通过对过去观察值取某种模式的平均数,力求消除由序列数据中随机扰动而产生的扭曲,使预测建立在对过去数次观察值的一个平滑的平均数基础上。移动平均法。季节变动。第24页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二

SoothingTechniques

6.MovingAveragesAsmoothingforecastmethodfordatathatjumpsaroundBestwhenthereisnotrend3-PeriodMovingAve.Yt+1=[Yt+Yt-1+Yt-2]/3N的选择。案例4-4——沃克公司。*****ForecastLineTIMEDependentVariable第25页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二SmoothingTechniques

7.First-OrderExponentialSmoothingAhybridoftheNaiveandMovingAveragemethodsYt+1=w•Yt+(1-w)Yt

Aweightedaverageofpastactualandpastforecast.EachforecastisafunctionofallpastobservationsCanshowthatforecastisbasedongeometricallydecliningweights.

Yt+1=w.•Yt+(1-w)•w•Yt-1+ (1-w)2•w•Yt-1+…

FindlowestRMSEtopickthebestalpha.^^^

^第26页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二First-OrderExponential

SmoothingExampleforw=.50ActualSales Forecast

100

100 initialseedrequired

120 .5(100)+.5(100)=100 115

130

?

12345第27页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二First-OrderExponential

SmoothingExampleforw=.50ActualSales Forecast

100

100 initialseedrequired

120 .5(100)+.5(100)=100 115 .5(120)+.5(100)=110

130

?

12345第28页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二ActualSales Forecast

100

100 initialseedrequired

120 .5(100)+.5(100)=100 110 .5(120)+.5(100)=110

130 .5(115)+.5(110)=112.50

?

.5(130)+.5(112.50)=121.25Period5ForecastMSE={(120-100)2+(110-115)2+(130-112.5)2}/3=243.75RMSE=243.75=15.6112345第29页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二Directionofsalescanbeindicatedbyothervariables.TIMEIndexofCapitalGoodspeakPEAKMotorControlSales

4MonthsExample:IndexofCapitalGoodsisa“leadingindicator”Therearealsolaggingindicatorsandcoincidentindicators

QualitativeForecasting

8.BarometricTechniques

四、定性预测技术第30页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二QualitativeForecasting

9.SurveysandOpinionPollingTechniquesSamplebias--telephone,magazineBiasedquestions--advocacysurveysAmbiguousquestionsRespondentsmaylieonquestionnairesNewProductshavenohistoricaldata--Surveyscanassessinterestinnewideas.SurveyResearchCenterofU.ofMich.doesrepeatsurveysofhouseholdsonBigTicketitems(Autos)CommonSurveyProblems第31页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二SpecifythevariablesinthemodelEstimatetheparameterssingleequationorperhapsseveralstagemethodsQd=a+b•P+c•I+d•Ps+e•PcButforecastsrequireestimatesforfutureprices,futureincome,etc.Oftencombineeconometricmodelswithtimeseriesestimatesoftheindependentvariable.五、经济计量模型(11)第32页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二12.StochasticTimeSeriesAlittlemoreadvancedmethodsincorporateintotimeseriesthefactthateconomicdatatendstodriftyt=a+byt-1+etInthisseries,ifaiszeroandbis1,thisisessentiallythenaïvemodel.Whenaiszero,thepatterniscalledarandomwalk.Whenaispositive,thedatadrift.TheDurbin-Watsonstatisticwillgenerallyshowthepresenceofautocorrelation,orAR(1),integratedoforderone.Onesolutiontovariablesthatdrift,istousefirstdifferences.第33页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二CointegratedTimeSeriesSomeeconometricworkincludesseveralstochasticvariable,eachwhichexhibitsrandomwalkwithdriftSupposepricedata(P)haspositivedriftSupposeGDPdata(Y)haspositivedriftSupposethesalesisafunctionofP&Y

Salest=a+bPt+cYtItislikelythatPandYarecointegratedinthattheyexhibitcomovementwithoneanother.Theyarenotindependent.Thesimplestsolutionistochangetheformintofirstdifferencesasin:DSalest=a+bDPt+cDYt第34页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二Moreandmorefirmarebecomingmultinationalenterprises.Exportsandimportsare influencedbychangesininternationalexchangerates.Differencesinlongruninflationrates(accordingtothetheoryofpurchasingpowerparity),nationaleconomicgrowthrates,andinterestrateshelpexplainlong-termexchangeratemovements.六、进出口销售与汇率第35页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二CompetitivenessandExchangeRatesTheinternationalcompetitivenessofproductsisaffectedbyexchangerates.

IftheUSexportsaJeepGrandCherokeethatsellsfor$30,000,thepriceofthesamecarinEuropeisvastlydifferentIn2000,$/€=$.86/€.Ifthatcarcosts$30,000,theninEurosthatis$30,000/$.860/€or€34,884.When$/€=$.86/€,then€/$=1/$.86/€=€1.163/$In2004,$/€=$1.20/€.Ifthatsamecarcosts$30,000,theninEurosthatis$30,000/$1.20/€or€25,000.When$/€=$1.20/€,then€/$=1/$1.20/€=€.833/$Clearly,moreJeepsarelikelytobesoldinEuropeatthelowerthanthehigherprice.第36页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二ForeignExchangeRiskExposureTranslationRiskExposure

–occurswhenforeignassetsorliabilitiesareaffectedbyexchangerates.DisneyownsaparknearParis.WhentheEurorisesagainstthedollar,thevalueofthelandrisesintermsofdollars.Thisisprimarilyanaccountingadjustment.TransactionRiskExposure

–occurswhenapurchaseorsaleismadeinthefuture,whichinvolvesaforeigncurrency.WhenCumminsEnginesellsequipmenttoJapaninYen,buttheygive60daysbeforethepaymentisdue,thereisariskthattheYenwillfallinvalue.OperatingRiskExposure

–occurswhencashflowsofthefirmareimpactedbyexchangerates.WhenJeepsellsmoreGrandCherokeeswhenthevalueofthedollarislow,andlesswhenitishigh,thisisoperatingriskexposure.Thisisthemostimportantrisk.第37页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二Jeep,BMW,andCumminsEnginearebuyingandsellingforeignexchangeinthemarket.GovernmentsalsointervenebybuyingorsellingcurrenciesSpotPrice

forforeignexchangeiscurrentprice(2daydelivery)canappearindifferenttermsThe$/€isthedirectquoteintheUS,buttheindirectquoteinEuropeThe€/$istheindirectquoteintheUS,butthedirectquoteintheEuropeForwardPrice

isthepriceofaforeigncurrencyfordeliveryatafuturedateagreedbycontracttodayTheMarketforUSDollarsasForeignExchange第38页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二CanadianDollar

SpotandForwardRatesCountry US$equivalent PerUS$

Canada(C$)

.7331 1.36311-monthforward .7327 1.36482-monthsforward .7322 1.36573-monthsforward .7320 1.36616-monthsforward .7312 1.367612-monthsforward .7298 1.3702WhatdoesthemarketthinkwillhappentotheC$basedontheforwardrates?

June21,2004from/economic/regular/fxrates.html第39页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二CrossRates

(June22,2004)USDEURJPYGBPCHFCADAUDHKDHKD7.79939.43870.071314.19046.23375.74495.3569

AUD1.45591.7620.01332.6491.16371.0724

0.1867CAD1.35761.6430.01242.47011.0851

0.93250.1741CHF1.25121.51410.01142.2764

0.92160.85940.1604GBP0.54960.66510.005

0.43930.40480.37750.0705JPY109.325132.305

198.91187.379680.52875.089914.0173EUR0.8263

0.00761.50340.66040.60870.56760.1059USD

1.21020.00911.81940.79930.73660.68680.1282Source:/markets/currencies/fxc.htmlUSD:U.S.Dollar GBP:BritishPound CAD:CanadianDollarEUR:Euro CHF:SwissFranc AUD:AustralianDollarHKD:HongKongDollar JPY:JapaneseYen第40页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二

Supply&DemandModelofExchangeRatesForeignExchangeisusedfortradeandinvestment.Useasupply&demandmodeltoexploreFXratesDemandforSwissFrancs(SFr):

DemandisassociatedwithUSdemandfor

imports

fromSwitzerlandandpurchaseofSwissfinancialsecuritiesD$/SFr

SFr1,000SFr第41页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二

SupplyofSFrSupplyofSFr--SupplyisassociatedwithSWISSdemandforUS

exports

andUSfinancialinvestments.MarketClears-- noexcessdemandorexcesssupplyofSFInFlexibleMarkets,buying&sellingthroughinternationalbanksD$/SFrSFrS$.7993第42页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二SupposethatthereisariseintheInflationRate

intheUS

BothSupply&DemandofSFrShiftSWISSproductsappearcheaper,soDshiftstoD’USexportsappearmoreexpensive,soSshiftsfromStoS’TheSFrappreciates,andthedollardepreciatesD$1/SFrSFrSD'S'$2/SFr第43页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二SupposeUSinterestratesrise.DemandforSwissinvestmentsdeclines,fromDtoD’SupplyofSwissfrancsrisesasSwissseektoinvestintheUSfromStoS’SwissfrancsfallinvalueandthedollarrisesinvalueWhathappenswhenGreenspanCUTSinterestrates?D$1/SFrSD'$2/SFrS’第44页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二GovernmentalInterventioninForeignExchangeMarketsGovernmentscananddointerveneinmarketsDirectlybybuyingandsellingforeigncurrenciesAndindirectlybyalteringinterestratesorinflationratesSterilizedInterventionsinvolveoffsettinganindirectmove(likeanincreaseinshortterminterestrates)throughdirectactionintheforeigncurrencymarketsCoordinatedInterventionsinvolveseveralcountriesallagreeingtointervenetoraiseorlowertheexchangerateofsomecountry.第45页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二ForeignExchangeRiskManagement

Internalhedges–multinationalfirmsbuyandsellwithinthefirminanycurrencythattheyselect.BMWcouldusesaleofitscarsin$payablestobuyUScarpartsHedgesusingforwardcontracts–firmscanoffsetexposureinforeigncurrencybybuyingorsellingthatamountofcurrencyinaforwardcontract.ThisisatypicalwaytoreducetransactionriskexposureHedgesusingfutureoroptionscontracts–firmmayoffsetriskwithafuturescontractinthatcurrency.ForeigncurrencyfuturesandoptionsarelimitedtothemajorcurrenciesHedgesusingcurrencyswaps–firmsmayagreetoexchange(swap)streamsofpaymentsindifferentcurrencies,withadjustmentsateachsettlementdate.第46页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二DeterminantsofLong-RunTrends

inExchangeRates1.CountriesthathavehighgrowthratesinGDPtendtohaverisingcurrencyvalues.2. Countriestendtohaveadecliningvalueoftheircurrencywhentheyruntradedeficits,andtendtohaverisingcurrencyvaluesiftheyruntradesurpluses.3.Long-runtrendsinexchangeratesareaffectedbydifferencesininflation-adjustedinterestrates.Highrelativeinterestratesattractinvestors,tendingtoraisethevalueofthecurrency.4.Countrieswithhigh

inflation

tendtodepreciate;countrieswithlowrelativeinflationappreciate.

第47页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二PurchasingPowerParity(PPP)Purchasingpowerparitysaysthatthepriceoftradedgoodstendstobeequalaroundtheworld.Thisis:thelawofoneprice.ifexchangeratesareflexibleandtherearenosignificantcostsorbarrierstotrade,then:S1 =(1+h)S0 (1+f)

S1/S0showstheexpectedchangeinthedirectquoteofacurrency.Therightsideoftheequationistheratioofhomeandforeigninflationrates.Iftheforeigninflationrises(f),thenthedomesticexpectedfuturespotratesS1declines.第48页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二PPPExampleSupposeinflationintheUSis3%SupposethatinflationinCanadais4%ThecurrencypriceoftheCanadiandollaris$.74/C$.WhatistheexpectedpriceoftheCanadiandollarinoneyear?Answer:S1 =(1+h)=1.03=.9903=

S1

S0 (1+f)1.04.74Hence,S1=.74*.9903=$.732822/C$,aslightdeclinefrom$.74.第49页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二QualificationsofPPP

PPPissensitivetothestartingpoint,S0.ThebasetimeperiodmaynotinequilibriumDifferencesinthetradedgoods,orcross-culturaldifferences,maypreventthelawofonepricetoequilibratepricedifferences.Theinflationrateusedmayincludesomenon-tradedgoods.PPPtendstoworkbetterinthelongrunthaninshortrunchangesininflationaryexpectations.第50页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二Trade-WeightedExchangeRateIndexWithmanycountriesandmanyexchangerates,whetheracurrencyroseorfelliscomplex.Wetendtocombinethecostofforeigncurrencyintoanindexbasedontheamountoftradetoeachcountry.Thetrade-weightedexchangerateindexisameasureofthevalueofthedollar.Theindex,EER,isweightedbytheamountoftradewithothercountries,wit.Anindexofthechangeinvalueofpairsofcurrenciessinceabaseyear,eI$it.If£.40/$istheexchangerateinthebaseyearandisnow£.60/$,thentheindexis(£.60/$)/(£.40/$)·100=150.Thismeansthatthedollaris50%moreexpensivetotheBritish.Theindexis:第51页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二InternationalTradeandTradingBlocs

Withnobarrierstotradeinafreetradeblock,suchaswehaveinNorthAmericabecauseofNAFTA,tradeexpandsIn1980,33%ofUStradewasinNorthAmerican.In1999,thatnumberis47%.In1980,57%ofEuropeantradewasinEurope.In1999,thatpercentageroseto61%In1980,13%oftradeinSouthAmericaintheblocknowasMERCOSURwaswithinthatregion.In1999,thatpercentageroseto22%Ineachcase,freertradewithintheregionledtomoreintraregionaltrade.SeeTable6.3onpage263.第52页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二RealTermsofTrade

Example:page265Table6.4

AbsoluteCostUS AbsoluteCostJapanCarburetors $120 ¥10,000MemoryChips $300 ¥8,000 Thequestionis:Whichcountryshouldmakecarburetorsandwhichshouldmakechips?第53页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二ComparativeAdvantageCountriesorfirmsshouldproducemoreofthosegoodsforwhichtheyhavelowerrelativecost.

RelativeCostinUS RelativeCostinJapanCarburetors .4Chips=$120/$300 1.25ChipsComputerChips 2.5Carb=$300/$120 .8Carburetors

Itcosts$120intheUStomakeacarburetorand$300tomakechips,the“cost”ofacarburetoristhe.4chipsforegone(taketheratio$120/$300tofind.4chips).TheUSrelativecostofcarburetorsismuchlowerthanthatoftheJapanese(1.25Chips),whereastheJapaneserelativecostofchips(.8Carburetors)ismuchlowerthanthatoftheUS.JapanshouldmakechipsandUSshouldmakecarburetors.第54页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二GainsfromComparativeAdvantageInthisexample,supposethatbothcountriescurrentlymake1carburetorand1chip.Worldproductionis2carburetorsand2memorychipsbeforetrade.Now,lettheUSmakeallofthecarburetors.Sinceeachchipgivenupis2.5carburetors,theUSnowmakes3.5carburetors(theonetheyweremakingandthe2.5extraonesmade).LetalsoJapanspecializeinmemorychips.Theystopmakingthecarburetorandmakeinstead1.25chips.Alongwiththeoriginalchip,theymake2.25chips.Worldproductionroseto3.5carburetorsand2.25chipsthroughcomparativeadvantage.Bothcountrieswillbericherbythistrade.第55页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二Restrictions

onFreeTradeTariffsExpandsdomesticproductionButraisesthepriceforconsumersImportquotasRaisesthepriceforconsumersExchangeratecontrolsReducestradeLargerfreetraderegionscalledtradingblocsEuropeanCommunityandtheEuroNAFTAExpansionofNAFTAwithLatinAmericaandMERCOSURAttemptsto

ExpandFreeTrade第56页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二SupplyandDemandAnalysisofTradeSituationwithoutatariffSmallCountry--importsoilatPwQuantityofOilDOMESTICDEMANDDOMESTICSUPPLYPw

Sd Qd Dd

AmountofoilimportedisDd-Sd第57页,共62页,2023年,2月20日,星期二ImpactofTariffswithS&DCurvesSituationwherePTisthepricewithatariffQuantityofOilDOMESTICDEMANDDOMESTICSUPPLYPTPw

Sd S’d D’d D

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