世界银行-女工代表性效应：科威特公务员队伍中的性别薪酬差异（英）

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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10509

Female-WorkerRepresentationEffectGenderPayVariationintheKuwaitiCivilService

MohamedIhsanAjwad

SimonBilo

HaNguyen

EbtesamAlAnsari

LamaAlHumaidan

FalehAlRashidi

SocialProtectionandJobsGlobalPractice&

MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion

June2023

ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam

PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10509

Abstract

withahigherratioofwomentomentendtohavelowerwagesforbothgenderswhencomparedtoworkersinoccu-pationswithalowerratioofwomentomen.Thisfindingisespeciallytrueforwomen.Workplaceswithahigherfemale-to-maleratioexhibitlowermalewagesbutslightlyhigherfemalewagesthanworkplaceswithlowerfemale-to-maleworkplaceratios.Thepapercallsthislatternovelfindingthefemale-workerrepresentationeffect.

KuwaitiwomenworkinginKuwait’scivilserviceearn,on

average,18percentlessthanKuwaitimen.Usingaunique

datasetofallKuwaitinationalsworkinginKuwait’scivil

service,thispaperanalyzestherelationshipbetweenwages,

gender,andtherelativedominanceofwomeninoccupa-

tionsandworkplaces.Themainfindingisthatanimportant

portionoftheassociationbetweengenderandwagesis

explainednotbyhumancapitalbutbyoccupationaland

workplacesegregationofmenandwomen.Occupations

ThispaperisaproductoftheSocialProtectionandJobsGlobalPracticeandtheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebathttp://www.worldbank.org/prwp.Theauthorsmaybecontactedatmajwad@.

ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

Female-WorkerRepresentationEffect:GenderPayVariationintheKuwaitiCivilService

MohamedIhsanAjwad(WorldBank,Washington,DC,USA)

SimonBilo(WorldBank,Washington,DC,USA)

HaNguyen(InternationalMonetaryFund,Washington,DC,USA)

EbtesamAlAnsari(PublicAuthorityforAppliedEducationandTraining,KuwaitCity,Kuwait)

LamaAlHumaidan(PublicAuthorityforAppliedEducationandTraining,KuwaitCity,Kuwait)

FalehAlRashidi(PublicAuthorityforAppliedEducationandTraining,KuwaitCity,Kuwait)

*

Keywords:genderwagegap,civilservants’wages,Kuwait,MENA

JELCodes:J15,J24,J31,J42,J45,J61,J71

*Theauthorsmaybecontactedat

majwad@,

sbilo@,

hnguyen7@,

im.alansari@.kw,

lt.alhumaidan@.kw,

and

fm.alrashidi@.kw.

Thispaper,itsanalysis,anditsconclusionssolelyrepresenttheviewsoftheauthorsandnotnecessarilytheirrespectiveorganizations.TheauthorswouldliketoacknowledgethefinancialsupportreceivedfromtheGenderandLaborMarketsResearchProgramsundertheaegisoftheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaChiefEconomist’sOffice(MNACE),aswellascommentsreceivedfromMNACEcolleagues.TheauthorsaregratefultoDr.KhaledMahdi,IssamA.Abousleiman,GhassanN.Alkhoja,andAnushBezhanyanfortheirsupport.Inaddition,theauthorsaregratefultoSAnukriti,RobertaV.Gatti,DanielLederman,IsmailRadwan,FatmaAhmadAlIbrahim,andNellyElmallakhforhelpfulcommentsandvaluablesuggestions.Anyremainingerrorsaretheresponsibilityoftheauthors.

2

Female-WorkerRepresentationEffect:GenderPayVariationintheKuwaitiCivil

Service

1.Introduction

Earningsdifferencesbetweenmenandwomenareobservedinalmosteverycountry.Forexample,intheUS,thewomen/menearningsratiowasroughly60percentformanyyears,thoughitbegantorisesharplyinthe1980sand“by2014,womenfull-timeworkersearnedabout79percentofwhatmendidonanannualbasis”(BlauandKahn,2017).Avastliteraturedocumentsthegenderpaydifferencearoundtheworld.Forexample,AltonjiandBlank(1999)reportthatwomen’swageshaveincreasedrelativetomen.Definedasthedifferencebetweenmedianearningsofmenandwomenrelativetomedianearningsofmen,theOECDfindsthatthegenderwagegapisaslowas1.2percentinBelgiumand2.6percentinBulgaria,andashighas31.1percentintheRepublicofKoreaand24.3percentinIsrael(OECD2023).

BlauandKahn(2017),usingPanelStudyofIncomeDynamicsdata,discussthestylizedfactsregardingthegenderwagedifferenceintheUnitedStates.Whilehumancapitalvariablesusedtoexplainasignificantshareofthegenderwagedifference,morerecentestimatesshowthattheydonot.Anincreasinglyimportantdeterminantofthegenderwagedifferenceistheoccupationandindustryinwhichanindividualworks.Importantly,menandwomenoftenworkindifferentoccupationsandsectors,withcorrespondingvariationingenderpaydifferences(BlauandKahn2017;Kunze2018).TheeffectofoccupationalgendersegregationongenderpaydifferencesisdemonstratedbyKiddandGoninon(2000),Hegewishetal.(2010),GrönlundandMagnusson(2013),andCortesandPan(2018).Worksusingemployer–employeematcheddatasetssuchasGroshen(1991),ReillyandWirjanto(1999),Bayardetal.(2003),Cardetal.(2016),Cardosoetal.(2016),andCasaricoandLattanzio(forthcoming)showtheimportanceofworkplacegendersegregationforexplaininggenderwagedifferences.

Itisdifficulttoempiricallydeterminewhetherlowerrepresentationofwomeninhigher-payingoccupationsisduetodiscrimination,subtlebarrierswomenfacewhenseekingwork,orselection(specificjobcharacteristicsthatleadwomennottopursuesuchjobs).Recentresearchpointstomultiplemechanismsleadingwomentowardlower-payingoccupations,includinghigherriskaversion(CrosonandGneezy2009;EckelandGrossman2008),worseperformanceinhighlycompetitiveenvironments(Bertrand2011;Gneezyetal.2003),lowerconfidence(NiederleandVesterlund2007),lowersalaryexpectations(Bertrand2017;Bowles,Babcock,andMcGinn2005;BabcockandLaschever2006;Roussille2022),higherinvolvementinfamilycare(Kunze2018;Klevenetal.2019a;Klevenetal.2019b;Klevenetal.2021),andmen’sdesiretomaintaintheiroccupationalgroup’ssocialstatusunderasymmetricinformation(Goldin2002).

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Inthispaperweexplorewhethermen’sandwomen’spayrelatestofemale-workerrepresentation,definedastheshareofwomeninanoccupationorworkplace.Ouranalysisexploresauniquecross-sectionaladministrativedatasetcontaininganonymizedindividual-levelinformationonall341,522civilserviceemployeesinKuwaitemployedin2019.Inadditiontoastandardanalysisofgenderwagedifferences,weidentifyfunctionalrelationshipsbetweenwagesandtheproportionofwomeninanoccupationorworkplace.

Wefind,asothersbeforeus,thathumancapitalvariablesdonotexplainthegenderwagedifference(HosniandAl-Qudsi1988;ShahandAl-Qudsi1990;andAlAnsari2018).Instead,wefindthatoccupationalandworkplacesegregationplayanimportantexplanatoryroleinexplainingwagesinKuwait(likemanyothercountries).Therichnessofourdata,whichidentifiespeople’soccupationsandworkplaces,allowsfornovelscrutinyofthepossibleunderlyingmechanismsbehindlabormarketsegregationandgenderwagedifferences.Menandwomentendtomakelessonaverageinfemale-dominatedoccupationsthanmaledominatedoccupations.However,women’swagesareevenlowerinsuchoccupations.Wealsofindthatahigherproportionofwomeninaworkplaceisassociatedwithhigherfemalewagesandlowermalewages

1

thanworkplaceswithalowerproportionofwomen.Othersfindthatintheprivatesector,ahigherproportionofwomenisassociatedwithlowerwagesingeneral(ReillyandWirjanto1999;Bayardetal.2003).Wecallthisrelationshipthefemale-workerrepresentationeffect.

OurworkhasthemostincommonwithGroshen(1991)andBayardetal.(2003),whichuseprivatesectoremployer–employeematcheddatasetsfromtheUStoshowthatoccupationalandestablishment-levelgendersegregationaccountsforasizablefractionofthegenderwagedifference.Bayardetal.,whousemorecomprehensivedatathanGroshen,findthathigherproportionsofwomeninoccupationsandworkplacesareassociatedwithlargergenderwagegaps.Unlikethem,weanalyzemaleandfemalewagesofcivilserviceworkersintheKuwaitipublicsector.Inaddition,ratherthanfocusingonthewagegap,wefocusontherelationshipbetweengenderrepresentationandmen’sandwomen’swages.Ourfindingsarethusmorenuanced,allowingustoanalyzetherelationshipbetweeneachgender’swageandtheproportionofwomeninoccupationsandworkplaces.

Otherrelatedresearchexaminestheeffectsofgenderconcentrationandgenderdiversityonotheroutcomes,suchasjobsatisfaction.Benderetal.(2005)useUSdataandfindthatwomenreporthigherjobsatisfactioninfemale-dominatedworkplacesbecausesuchworkplacesoffermoreflexibility(flexiblehours,managerswhoaremoreaccommodating,moreliberalsick-andfamily-leavepolicies).Similarly,QianandFan

1OurfindingisconsistentwithWhaleyetal.(2020),whofindthatfemaledoctorsgetpaidlessinpracticeswithanoverwhelmingproportionofmaledoctors.

4

(2019)showthatwomenreportmoreunpleasantnessandlessmeaningfulnessatworkwhenworkinginmale-dominatedworkplaces.Womenalsoreportfacingpervasivestereotypes,suchasthatofthecaringmother(Sarathchandraetal.2018)orofficehousekeeper(Berdahletal.2018).Finally,womenreportfacingalackofmentoringandcareer-developmentopportunities(Campuzano2019).

Incontrast,Clarketal.(2021)showthatwomenperceivejobqualitytobelowerwhencoworkersaremainlywomen,whilemenreportthehighestperceivedjobqualitywhenthegendermixisequal.Theyarguethatwomenmightnotreportlowerjobqualityinmale-dominatedworkplaces,asthesejobsmaysignaltheireconomicandsocialadvancement(Moore2018).Meanwhile,menworkinginfemale-dominatedoccupationsmaysufferfromnegativestereotypingandthereforereportlowerjobevaluations(Lupton2000;Torre2018).

Theremainderofthepaperisorganizedasfollows.Section2providesbackgroundinformationontheKuwaitilabormarketandhighlightssomekeyopportunitiesandconstraintsfacedbywomeninthelabormarket.Section3describesthedatausedintheempiricalanalysis.Section4discussestheresults,andSection5concludes.

2.Background

AlAnsari(2018:37–45)summarizeskeydevelopmentsofKuwaitiwomen’sstatusinthelabormarket.Femalelaborforceparticipationhasincreasedsubstantially,from1.8percentin1965to39.3percentin2015,withanincreasingshareemployedinexecutivepositionssuchasmanagersandseniorgovernmentofficials.MostKuwaitiwomen,likeKuwaitimen,areemployedinthepublicsector.Kuwaitiwomenfacemanyformalandinformallimitationswhenenteringthelabormarket.Formallimitationsincludelegalrestrictionsonparticipationinoccupations“thatarehard,dangerous,orharmfultohealth,andfromoccupationsthatutilizetheirfemininity,violatetheirmannersorarenotinlinewithpublicmorals”(AlAnsari2018:42).

Informallimitationsforwomeninthelabormarketincludesocioculturalpressures,suchastheexpectationthatwomen“havetheapprovalofamalerelative(husband,fatherorbrother)towork[and]chooseafemale-appropriatejobwhichisgender-segregated,safe,andhasflexibleandshortworkinghours”(AlAnsari2018:44).Employmentopportunitiesarealsolimitedbecausewomencannotparticipateininformalmalesocialgatherings.Suchgatherings,calleddiwaniya,areimportantforumsfornetworkinganddecision-making,includingthoserelatedtoemploymentandpromotions(Redman2014:113;AlAnsari2018:45,74).AfemaleKuwaitibusinessownerillustratestheimportanceofexclusionfrommalesocialnetworks:“IcouldneverpenetrateamalenetworkbecauseIamawoman.Andalotofwhathappens,happensinthediwaniya.Alotofthediscussions—youdon’thaveaccesstothem.You’rereallyexcluded”(quotedinGarrison2015:157).

5

InKuwait,mostemployednationals—about83percent—workforthegovernment(Ajwadetal.2022).Inturn,mostpublicsectoremployeesarehiredbytheCivilServiceCommission,whichmatchesKuwait’sministriesandothergovernmentorganizationswithnewemployees.Theconcentrationofnationalsinthegovernmentisimportantforouranalysis,asourdatasetcoversallcivilserviceemployeesin2019andtherebyasignificantmajorityofnationals.TheCivilServiceCommissionhiresmostgovernmentemployees,butthegovernmenthiresthroughotherchannelsforpositionsinthesecurityforcesandstate-ownedenterprises.AlthoughwehavenotcomeacrossasystematicanalysisofthehiringprocessattheCivilServiceCommission,evidencesuggestssignificantinefficiencies,suchaslongwaitingperiodsandsizablejob-skillsmismatch(Garrison2015:147–53).

ThegeneralcompensationcriteriaofpeopleemployedthroughtheCivilServiceCommissionarepublicandwellknown.AlAnsari(2018:65–66)andAlHumaidan(2019:22)dividethecriteriaintotwosetsofcomponents.ThefirstsetappliestoKuwaitinationalsirrespectiveofgenderandconcernsyearsofservice,educationlevel,andspecialization.Thesecondsetisgenderdependentanddesignedtoincreasetheaveragemalewage.Thissetincludesasocialallowance,whichispaidtoallnationalsbutisgenerallyhigherformarriedmen,andachildallowance,predominantlyalsopaidtomen.ThedifferentialtreatmentbygenderfollowsPersonalStatusLawno.51/1984,accordingtowhich“themaleinthefamilyisresponsibleforprovidingthelivingexpensesforthefamily”(AlAnsari2018:65–66).Weshowbelowthatthesegender-specificfactorsexplainmuchofthegenderdifferenceincompensation.

Therulesforretirementarealsogenderdependent.InJanuary2020,womencouldretirewithafullpensionafter25yearsofserviceiftheywere50orolder.Mencoulddosoafter30yearsofserviceattheageof55.Whiletheretirementruleshavebecomestricterovertime,thedifferentialtreatmentofthegendershasbeenaconstant(Ajwadetal.2022;Biloetal.2021).

3.Data

Weanalyze2019payrolldatafromtheCivilServiceCommission.Thisisauniqueandrichdataset.Itcomprisesacrosssectionofindividual-levelanonymizedinformationoncivilserviceemployees,includingage,yearsofservice,maritalstatus,monthlywages,workplace,andtypeofemployment.Thereare341,522observationsinthedataset,whichwenarrowdownto262,771observationsafterexcludingnon-nationals,duplicaterecords,andpeoplewithimplausibleagevalues.Weexcludeapproximately70,000observationsofnon-nationalsinthecivilservicebecauseKuwaithasaduallabormarketinwhichcompensationfollowsverydifferentrulesfornationalsandnon-nationals(AlAnsari2018:41–45),requiringananalysisbeyondthescopeofthis

6

paper.

2

Ourdatacoverabout64percentofallnationalsworkinginKuwaitand76percentofnationalsworkinginthepublicsector,asshownbyAjwadetal.(2022)andBiloetal.(2021:15).Toourknowledge,onlyAlqattan,Stergioulas,andAl-Zayer(2012)useacomparablylargeanddetaileddatasetwhenestimatingreturnstoschoolinginKuwait.

Fivevariablesinthedataarecriticalforouranalysis—wages,occupationtype,occupation,publicsectororganization,andworkplace.WagesaremonthlywagesinKuwaitidinars(1KuwaitdinarwasonaverageUSD3.29during2019).Theseexcludechildbenefits,whicharealmostalwayspaidtomenfortheirfamilies,becausetheyarenotlaborcompensationandthereforedonotrepresentwagesinthetraditionalsenseoftheterm.

3

Occupationtypehas15usablecategories–abroadoccupationalclassificationofthedataset.

4

Incontrast,theoccupationvariablehas6,322categoriesandisthedetailedoccupationalclassification.Publicsectororganization,ororganization,classifiesallworkersintooneof36governmentalorganizations.

5

Workplaceisamoredetailedvariableclassifyingeachworkerintooneof11,166workplaces.

Table1

presentssummarystatisticsofthedataset.ItshowsthatwomenrepresentmostKuwaitisamongcivilserviceemployees.Thisismostlybecauseourdatadonotincludethesecurityforces,whicharemaledominated.Theaveragewomanemployedinthecivilserviceearns1,181Kuwaitidinars(KD)permonth,about81percentofthewagesoftheaveragemaninthecivilservice,whoearnsKD1,457.Whenincludingchildbenefits,theaveragemonthlywageofamanisKD1,571,whilethatofwomenisKD1,184.

Table

1

alsoexplorespossibleexplanationsforthedifference:malecivilservantstendtobeolderandhavemoreworkexperience;andarelesslikelytohaveacollegeeducationbuthavemoremaster’sdegreesandPhDs.Weconfirmbelowthateducationdoesnotexplaingenderwagedifferences.

6

Theremainingrowof

Table1

showsthepotentialimportanceofthesocialallowance.Asthree-quartersofmenaremarried,theyreceiveahighermaritalsocialallowance.Weconfirmbelowthattheallowanceisimportantforexplainingtheobservedgenderwagedifference.

2However,weusethenumberofnon-Kuwaitiswhencomputingourtwoderivedvariables,femaleoccupationratioandfemaleworkplaceratio.

3Itwouldhavebeen,forthesamereason,usefultonetthewagesofmaritalsocialallowance.Unfortunately,wedonothaveenoughinformationtomaketheadjustmentandthewagevariableincludesthisallowance.Wedocontrolformaritalstatusinouranalysis,however,tocapturetheeffectofthedifferencesinsocialbenefitsbetweenmarriedmenandeveryoneelse.

4Appendix1,TableA1,givesthefulllistofoccupationtypes.

5Appendix1,TableA2,givesthefulllistofpublicsectororganizations.

6SeeAppendix2forthelistofeducationlevels.

7

Table1:AveragesforkeyvariablesamongKuwaiticivilservants

Men

Women

Differenceinthemean(menminuswomen)

Numberofobservations

Monthlywages(KD)

97,926

1,457

164,845

1,181

276***

Age(years)

Yearsofserviceinthecivilservice

Bachelor’sdegreeonly

37.15

12.10

36%

36.2210.3449%

0.92***

1.77***

−13***(pctg.points)

PhDormaster’sdegree

6.66%

2.97%

3.69***(pctg.points)

Married(%)

75%

68%

6.83***(pctg.points)

Notes:ThecurrencyunitistheKuwaitidinar(KD),andmonthlywagesexcludechildbenefitsofKD50perchildforuptosevenchildren.Thebenefitsarepredominantlypaidaspartofmalewagesonbehalfoftheirfamilies.

*p<0.05,**p<0.01,***p<0.001

Source:KuwaitCivilServiceCommission(2019)andauthors’calculations

Table2

presentsthedistributionsofmonthlywagesofmaleandfemalecivilserviceemployees.Dependingonthewagepercentile,womenearnbetween79and90percentofwhatmenearn.Whendefinedasthedifferencebetweenmedianearningsofmenandwomenrelativetomedianearningsofmen,Kuwait’sgenderwagegapis14.1percent,whichisabovetheOECDaggregategapof11.9percent(OECD2023).

Table2:Monthlywages(KD)ofKuwaiticivilservantsbypercentiles

Men

Women

Women/Men

Mean

10thpercentile

25thpercentile

Median

75thpercentile

90thpercentile

1,457

778

972

1,235

1,679

2,339

1,181

81%

698

90%

825

85%

1,061

86%

1,371

82%

1,842

79%

Notes:ThecurrencyunitistheKuwaitidinar(KD),andmonthlywagesexcludechildbenefitsofKD50perchildforuptosevenchildren.Thebenefitsarepredominantlypaidaspartofmalewagesonbehalfoftheirfamilies.

Source:KuwaitCivilServiceCommission(2019)andauthors’calculations

Asnoted,BlauandKahn(2017)showthatoccupation-andindustry-relateddifferencesbetweenmenandwomenplayanimportantroleinexplainingthegenderwagedifference.Ourdatahighlighttheimportanceofoccupationalandsectoraldifferencesinthepublicsector.Inourstudy,occupationtypes,suchasengineeringjobs,administrativesupportjobs,ormedicalandhealthservicesjobs,allowustocompareoccupationaldifferences.

7

Similarly,differentpublicsectororganizations,suchastheMinistryofEducationandMinistryofHealth,representdifferentsectors.

Figure2

and

7Appendix1givesthefulllistoforganizationsandoccupationtypesinthedata.

8

Figure1

showthatwomentendtoworkinoccupationsandorganizationspayingloweraveragemonthlywages.

8

Ouranalysisbelowconfirmsthisisanimportantpartoftheexplanationoftheoverallwagevariation.

Figure1:Averagemonthlywageagainsttheproportionofemployedwomenbyvariousoccupationtypes

Notes:ThecurrencyunitistheKuwaitidinar(KD),andmonthlywagesexcludechildbenefitsofKD50perchildforuptosevenchildren.Thebenefitsarepredominantlypaidaspartofmalewagesonbehalfoftheirfamilies.SeeAppendix1TableA1forthelistofoccupationtypes.Fouroccupationsareexcluded.Inthreecases,oneofthegendershadfewerthan25observations.Inthefourth,theoccupationhadanambiguoustitle.TheregressionlineisasimpleOLSregressionforthetwoplottedvariables.Thelineisnotnecessarilythebestpossiblefitforthedata;itonlyillustratesonepossiblerelationshipthatweexploitrigorouslyintheanalysis.TheaveragecompensationisbasedonbothmaleandfemaleKuwaitiemployees.

Source:KuwaitCivilServiceCommission(2019)andauthors’calculations

8Thelinearregressionlinesarenotnecessarilythebestfitforthedata.Itispossiblethatanonparametricoraquadraticfunctionwouldfitbetter.Ourgoalnowis,however,onlytoillustrateapossiblerelationshipthatweexploitrigorouslyintheanalysis.

9

Figure2:Averagemonthlywageagainsttheproportionofemployedwomenatvariouspublicsectororganizations

Notes:ThecurrencyunitistheKuwaitidinar(KD),andmonthlywagesexcludechildbenefitsofKD50perchildforuptosevenchildren.

Thebenefitsarepredominantlypaidaspartofmalewagesonbehalfoftheirfamilies.SeeAppendixTableA2forthelistoforganizations.TheregressionlineisasimpleOLSregressionforthetwoplottedvariables.Thelineisnotnecessarilythebestpossiblefitforthedata;itonlyillustratesapossiblerelationshipthatweexploitrigorouslyintheanalysis.TheaveragecompensationisbasedonbothmaleandfemaleKuwaitiemployees.

Source:KuwaitCivilServiceCommission(2019)andauthors’calculations

Thefiguresabovesuggestthatourlistsoforganizationsandoccupationtypesareanalyticallymeaningful.Buttheyarealsosomewhatlimited.Fortunately,ourdatasetalsooffersmorecomprehensivevariablesrepresentingspecificoccupationsandworkplacesthatwetranslatedtoEnglishfromArabicusingGoogleTranslateAPI.Whilethecategorizationsprovetohavehighexplanatorypower,

Table3

suggeststheneedforcautionwhenusingthetwovariablesbecausemanycategoriesrepresentveryfewemployees.Forexample,thetableindicatesthatatleast50percentofclassifiedoccupationshaveonlyoneobservation.Weshowbelowthatrobustnesschecks—inwhichwedropoccupationsandworkplacesrepresentingfewerthan10employees—donotsubstantivelychangetheresults.

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Table3:Numberofemployees(Kuwaitiandnon-Kuwaiti)invariousoccupationsandworkplacesbypercentiles

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