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Lecture TheTestandReading The Lecture HowtoRead yzea Long Short Lecture Lecture Lecture Lecture Typesof Lecture Exercise Exercise Exercise LectureTheTestandReadingThe1.ThePhysicalSciencesSocialSciencesthereadingpassagesDrawinginferencesfromfactsandstatementsinthereadingarepresentedinverbalmaterialMainIdea

LogicalRelationship:Passage(文章层次总TW(Topic

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V,adj, kw,a,b,kw>abcabc,xyz DrawingconclusionsfromfactsandstatementsinthereadingQuestionsofthistypeaskyoutoconsiderfactualstatementsorinformationand，onthebasisofthatinformation,reachageneralconclusionUnderstandingandfollowingthedevelopmentoftativeconceptsastheyarepressedinverbalmaterial;Questionsofthistypeinvolvetheinterpretationofnumericaldataortheuseofsimplearithmetictoreachconclusionsaboutmaterialsinapassage.Nospecificknowledgeofthematerialisrequired.Allquestionsaretobeansweredonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthereadingmaterial.HowtoRead yzeaLongShortAlthoughnumbersofanimalsinagivenregionmayfluctuatefromyeartoyearthefluctuationsareoftentemporaryand,overlongperiods,trivial.Scientistshaveadvancedthreetheoriesofpopulationcontroltoaccountforthisrelativeconstancy(词).ThefirsttheoryattributesarelativelyconstantpopulationtoperiodicclimaticcatastrophesthatdecimatepopulationswithsuchfrequencyastopreventthemfromexceedingsomeparticularAsecondtheoryarguesthatpopulationgrowthisprimarilydensity-dependent—thatis,therateofgrowthofapopulationinaregiondecreasesasthenumberofanimalsincreasesAthirdtheory,proposedbyWynne-Edwardsandtermed“epideictic,”arguesthatorganismshaveevolveda“code”intheformofsocialorepideicticbehaviordisys….Althoughnumbersofanimalsinagivenregionmayfluctuatefromyeartoyear,thefluctuationsareoftentemporaryand,overlongperiods,trivial.Scientistshaveadvancedthreetheoriesofpopulationcontroltoaccountforthisrelativeconstancy.Thefirsttheoryattributesarelativelyconstantpopulationtoperiodicclimaticcatastrophesthatdecimatepopulationswithsuchfrequencyastopreventthemfromexceedingsomeparticularlimit.Inthecaseofsmallorganismswithshortlifecycles,climaticchangesneednotbecatastrophic:normalseasonalchangesinphotoperiod(dailyamountofsunlight),forexample,canernpopulationgrowth.Thistheory—thedensity-independentview—assertsthatclimaticfactorsexertthesameregulatoryeffectonpopulationregardlessofthenumberofindividualsinAsecondtheoryarguesthatpopulationgrowthisprimarilydensity-dependent—thatis,therateofgrowthofapopulationinaregiondecreasesasthenumberofanimalsincreases.Themechanismsthatmanageregulationmayvary.Forexample,asnumbersincrease,thefoodsupplywouldprobablydiminish,whichwouldincreasemortality.Inaddition,asLotkaandVolterrahaveshown,predatorscanfindpreymoreeasilyinhigh-densitypopulations.Otherregulatorsincludephysiologicalcontrolmechanisms:forexample,ChristianandDavishavedemonstratedhowthecrowdingthatresultsfromariseinnumbersmaybringabouthormonalchangesinthepituitaryandadrenalglandsthatinturnmayregulatepopulationbylowering ualactivityandinhibitingualmaturation.Thereisevidencethattheseeffectsmaypersistforthreegenerationsintheabsenceoftheoriginalprovocation.Onechallengefordensity-dependenttheoristsistomodelsthatwouldallowtheprecisepredictionoftheeffectsofAthirdtheory,proposedbyWynne-Edwardsandtermed“epideictic,”arguesthatorganismshaveevolveda“code”intheformofsocialorepideicticbehaviordisys,suchaswinter-roostingaggregationsorgroupvocalizing;suchcodesprovideorganismswithinformationonpopulationsizeinaregionsothattheycan,ifnecessary,exercisereproductiverestraint.However,Wynne-Edwards’theory,linkinganimalsocialbehaviorandpopulationcontrol,hasbeenchallenged,withsomejustification,byseveralstudies.Q1.Theprimarypurposeofthepassageisto：首段题找文章的TopicWordsargueagainstthosescientistswhomaintainthatanimalpopulationstendtofluctuatecompareandcontrastthedensity-dependentandepideictictheoriesofpopulationprovideexampleofsomeofthewaysinwhichanimalsexercisereproductiverestrainttocontroltheirownnumberssuggeststhattheoriesofpopulationcontrolthatconcentrateonthesocialbehaviorofanimalsaremoreopentodebatethanaretheoriesthatdonotsummarizeanumberofscientifictheoriesthatattempttoexinwhyanimalpopulationsdonotexceedcertainlimitsQ2.Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatproponentsofthedensity-dependenttheoryofpopulationcontrolhavenotyetbeenableto态度：3段末句usetheirtheorytoexinthepopulationgrowthoforganismswithshortlifereproducetheresultsofthestudyofChristianandexinadequa ywhythenumbersofapopulationcanincreaseasthepopulation’srateofgrowthdecreasesdemonstratehowpredatorpopulationsarethemselvesQ3.Whichofthefollowing,iftruewouldbestsupportthedensity-dependenttheoryofpopulationcontrolasitisdescribedinthepassage?逻辑支持：3段首句AsthenumberoffoxesinMinnesotadecrease,thegrowthrateofthispopulationoffoxesbeginstoincrease.AsthenumberofwoodpeckersinVermontdecreases,thegrowthrateofthispopulationofwoodpeckersalsobeginstodecrease.AsthenumberofprairiedogsinOklahomaincreases,thegrowthrateofthispopulationofprairiedogsalsobeginstoincrease.AfterthenumberofbeaversinTennesseedecreases,thenumberofpredatorsofthesebeaversbeginstoincrease.AfterthenumberofeaglesinMontanadecreases,thefoodsupplyofthispopulationofeaglesalsobeginstodecrease.Q4.AccordingtotheWynne-Edwardstheoryasitisdescribedinthepassageepideicticbehaviordisysservethefunctionof细节：4段首句locating triggeringhormonalShortPassageIntheseventeenth-centuryFlorentinetextileindustry,womenwereemployedprimarilyinlow-paying,low-skilljobs.Toexinthissegregationoflaborbygender,economistshavereliedontheusefultheoryofhumancapital.——> 间肯定会有同义词，eg.照抄、改写、逻辑等价词）Accordingtothistheory,investmentinhumancapital—theacquisitionofdifficultjob-relatedskills—generallybenefitsindividualsbymakingthemeligibletoengageinwell-paidoccupations.（讲的是人力资本的概念）Women’sparticipationinthejobmarket(ascomparedwithmen’s)andthusreduces（和段首相对应）theiropportunitiestoacquiretrainingforhighlyskilledwork.Inaddition(表示并列),thehumancapitaltheoryexinswhytherewasahighconcentrationofwomenworkersincertainlow-skilljobs,suchasweaving,butnotinothers（其实是一个缩略词）suchascombingorcarding,by（by一般来说是和谓语动词平行的，是对谓语动词状态的一种说明）positingthatbecauseoftheirprimaryresponsibilityinchildrearingwomentookoccupationsthatcouldbecarriedoutinthehome.Therewere,however,differencesinpayscalesthatcannotbeexinedbythehumancapital（给出了一个非常清楚的负评价）Forexample,maleconstructionworkerswerepaidsignificantlyhigherwagethanfemaletaffetaweavers.Thewagedifferencebetweenthesetwolow-skilloccupationsstemsfrom（给出了原因）thesegregationoflaborbygender:becausealimitednumberofoccupationswereopentowomen,therewasalargesupplyofworkersintheirfields,andthis“overcrowding”resultedinwomenreceivinglowerwagesandmenreceivinghigherwages.(3.4.w;interrup.5.home)xpayscaleabQ1.Thepassagesuggeststhatcombingandcardingdifferfromweavinginthatcombingandcardinglow-skilljobsperformedbyprimarilybywomenlow-skilljobsthatwerenotperformedinthelow-skilljobsperformedbybothmaleandfemalehigh-skilljobsperformedoutsidethehigh-skilljobsperformedbybothmaleandfemaleQ2.Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostweakentheexnationprovidedbythehumancapitaltheoryforwomen’sconcentrationincertainoccupationsinseventeenth-centuryFlorence?Womenwereunlikelytoworkoutsidethehomeeveninoccupationswhosehousewereflexibleenoughtoallowwomento modatedomestictasksaswellaspaidlabor.ParentswerelesslikelytoteachoccupationalskillstotheirdaughtersthantheyweretotheirWomen’sparticipationintheFlorentinepaidlabor grewsteadilythroughoutthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.ThevastmajorityoffemaleweaversintheFlorentinewoolindustryhadFewwomenworkedasweaversintheFlorentinesilkindustry,whichwasdevotedtomakingclothsthatrequiredahighdegreeofskilltoproduce.Q3.Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytodescribetheexnationprovidedbythehumancapitaltheoryforthehighconcentrationofwomenincertainoccupationsintheseventeenth-centuryFlorencetextileindustryas（混合评价）wellfounded difficulttousiblebutpoorlycontrarytorecent态度 LectureMulti-LevelStructure:发展态度1stexTS:exin+现象ButOtherwayJapanesefirmshaveachievedthehighestlevelsofmanufacturingefficiencyintheworldautoindustry.（第一句话可能是讲观点的也可能是的——>）SomeobserversofJapan（有人物就有观点）haveassumedthatJapanesefirmsusethesamemanufacturingequipmentandtechniquesasUnitedStatesfirmsbuthavebenefitedfromtheuniquecharacteristicsofJapaneseemployeesandtheJapaneseculture（理论）.However（反驳）,ifthisweretrue,thenonewouldexpectJapaneseautontsintheUnitedStatestoperformnobetterthanfactoriesrunbyUnitedStatescompanies（负评价）.Thisisnotthecase…（负评价）KeyWordOtherobserverslinkhighJapaneseproductivitytohigherlevelsofcapitalinvestmentperworker.Butahistoricalleadstoadifferentconclusion.SincecapitalinvestmentwasnothigherinJapan,ithadtobeotherfactorsthatledtohigherproductivity.（过渡句——>otherfactors的存在）Amorefruitfulexnation（正评价）mayliewithJapaneseproductiontechniques.Japanesefirmshaveachievedthehighestlevelsofmanufacturingefficiencyintheworldautoindustry.（tw1现象）SomeobserversofJapanhaveassumedthatJapanesefirmsusethesamemanufacturingequipmentandtechniquesasUnitedStatesfirmsbuthavebenefitedfromtheuniquecharacteristicsofJapaneseemployeesandtheJapaneseculture.（kw1）However,ifthisweretrue,thenonewouldexpectJapaneseautontsintheUnitedStatestoperformnobetterthanfactoriesrunbyUnitedStatescompanies.(aw-1)ThisisnotthecapitalOtherobserverslinkhighJapaneseproductivitytohigherlevelsofworker.(kw2)Butahistoricalleadstoadifferentconclusion.(aw-capital

SincecapitalinvestmentwasnothigherinJapan,ithadtobeotherfactorsthatledtoproductivity.(kw3)AmorefruitfulexnationmayliewithJapaneseproductionpresentthemajorstepsofaclarifyanchronicleadefendanacceptedQ2.WhichofthefollowingbestdescribestheorganizationofthefirstAthesisispresentedandsupportingexamplesareAfactisstated,andanexnationisadvancedandthenAnopinionispresented,qualified（限制）andthen新老观点发展态度HasUntilLong,[however,MostDominant[However,Untilrecently（非常清楚地表示老观点）most(大众的意见经常被)astronomersbelievedthatthespacebetweenthegalaxies(topicwords)inouruniversewasanear-perfectvacuum.()Thisorthodoxviewoftheuniverseisnowbeingchallengedbyastronomerswho(名词比较抽象的时候看从句)believethataheavy“rain”ofgas（新观点的词）isfallingintomanygalaxiesfromthesupposedlyemptyspacearoundthem.Itiswellknownthatwhengasiscooledataconstantpressureitsvolumedecreases.Thus,thephysicistFabianreasonedthatasintergalacticgascools,thecoolergasshrinksinwardtowardthecenterofthegalaxy.——>已知的内容加上新知的内容Afairlyhereticalideainthe1970’s,thecooling-flowtheory（冷却流gas/coolinggas）gainedsupportwhenFabianobservedaclusterofgalaxiesintheconslationPerseusandfoundthecentralgalaxy,NGC1275,tobeastrange-lookingobjectwithirregularthinstrandsofgasradiatingfromit.Untilrecentlymostastronomersbelievedthatthespacebetweenthegalaxiesinouruniversewasanear-perfectvacuum.Thisorthodoxviewoftheuniverseisnowbeingchallengedbyastronomerswhobelievethataheavy“rain”ofgasisfallingintomanygalaxiesfromthesupposedlyemptyspacearoundthem.Itiswellknownthatwhengasiscooledataconstantpressureitsvolumedecreases.Thus,thephysicistFabianreasonedthatasintergalacticgascools,thecoolergasshrinksinwardtowardthecenteroftheAfairlyhereticalideainthe1970’s,thecooling-flowtheorygainedsupportwhenFabianobservedaclusterofgalaxiesintheconslationPerseusandfoundthecentralgalaxy,NGC1275,tobeastrange-lookingobjectwithirregular,thinstrandsofgasradiatingfromit.Q1.Theprimarypurposeofthepassageisillustrateahypothesisabouttheoriginofprovideevidencetodisputeanacceptedtheoryabouttheevolutionofsummarizethestateofandprospectsforresearchinintergalacticreportnewdataontheoriginsofintergalacticreconcileopposingviewsontheformationofintergalactic发展态度Subthesis1=kwSubthesis2=kwattitudeRecentstudyJosephGlatthaar’sForgedinBattle（GJ的FB这本书）isnotthefirstexcellent（正评价）studyofBlacksoldiersandtheirWhiteofficersintheCivilWar,but（but不是，而是强调转折）itusesmoresoldiers’lettersanddiaries—includingrarematerialfromBlacksoldiers—and（）concentratesmoreintenselyonBlack-WhiterelationsinBlackregimentsthandoanyofitspredecessors（先行的研究）.Glatthaar’stitleexpresseshisthesis（thesis是抽象名词，要抓住后面的修饰）:loyalty,friendship,andrespectamongWhiteofficersandBlacksoldierswerefosteredbythemutualdangerstheyfacedinGlatthaaraccuray（正评价）describestheernment’sdiscriminatorytreatmentofBlacksoldiersinpay,promotion,medicalcare,andjobassignments（）appropriayemphasizingthenbyBlacksoldiersandtheirofficerstogettheopportunitytofight.Intryingtodemonstratethemagnitudeofthisattitudinalchange（不是重点是修饰成分）however,Glatthaarseemstoexaggerate（夸大）theprewarracismoftheWhitemenwhobecameofficersinBlackregiments.ForgedinForgedinBlacksoldiersandtheirWhitenotthefirstexcellentstudy

（）intheCivilWar,butusesmoresoldiers’lettersanddiaries—includingrarematerialfromBlacksoldiers—andconcentratesmoreintenselyonBlack-WhiterelationsinBlackregimentsthandoanyofitspredecessors.——>twGlatthaar’stitleexpresseshisthesis:loyalty,friendship,andrespectamongWhiteofficersandBlacksoldierswerefosteredbythemutualdangerstheyfacedincombat. discriminatory discriminatorytreatment

describes

ofBlacksoldierspay,promotion,medicalcare,andjobBlacksoldiersandtheirofficerstogettheopportunitytofight.——

thenexaggeratetheprewarIntryingtodemonstratethemagnitudeofthisattitudinalchange,however,exaggeratetheprewaroftheWhitemenwhobecameofficersinBlack——Q1.ThepassageasawholecanbestbecharacterizedaswhichoftheAnevaluationofascholarlyAdescriptionofanattitudinalAdiscussionof ytical ysisofthecausesofaAnargumentinfavorofrevisingaLectureInoderto——Adj.(eg.Aisgood/not中间提到某个是为了干什么—>点Forexample.And.InWhataccountsforthisupsurgeinunionizationamongclericalworkers?（后面就会跟上若干的原因——>实际上就是并列的原因）First,morewomenhaveenteredtheworkinthepastfewyears,andmoreofthemntoremainworkinguntilretirementage. 辑上应该是等价的）,theyareprobablymoreconcernedthantheirpredecessorswereaboutjobsecurityandeconomicbenefits.Also（并列了，给出另外一个理由）,thewomen’smovementhassucceededinlegitimizingtheeconomicandpoliticalactivismofwomenontheirownbehalf,therebyproducing（分析表示修饰，句子尽量抓主干，修饰内容不是很重要）amorepositiveattitudetowardunions.Theabsenceofanycomparableincreaseinunionizationamongprivate-表示转折,这里表示前面两个原因都不是primarysecondary>起得是递进的作用）identifiestheprimarycatalyst—thestructuralchangeinthemulti-occupationalpublic-sectorunionsthemselvesOverthepasttwentyyearstheoccupationaldistributionintheseunionshasbeensteadilyshiftingfrompredominantlyblue-collartopredominantlywhite-collar.Becausetherearefarmorewomeninwhite-collarjobs,anincreaseintheproportionoffemalemembershas paniedtheoccupationalshiftandhasalteredunion-makinginfavoroforganizingwomenandaddressingwomen’sissues.Whataccountsforthisupsurgeinunionizationamongclericalworkers?First,morewomenhaveenteredthework inthepastfewyears,andmoreofthemntoremainworkinguntilretirementage.Consequently,theyareprobablymoreconcernedthantheirpredecessorswereaboutjobsecurityandeconomicbenefits.Also,thewomen’smovementhassucceededinlegitimizingtheeconomicandpoliticalactivismofwomenontheirownbehalf,therebyproducingamorepositiveattitudetowardunions.Theabsenceofanycomparableincreaseinunionizationamongprivate-sectorclericalworkers,however,identifiestheprimarycatalyst—thestructuralchangeinthemulti-occupationalpublic-sectorunionsthemselves.Overthepasttwentyyears,theoccupationaldistributionintheseunionshasbeensteadilyshiftingfrompredominantlyblue-collartopredominantlywhite-collar.Becausetherearefarmorewomeninwhite-collarjobs,anincreaseintheproportionoffemalemembershas paniedtheoccupationalshiftandhasalteredunion-makinginfavoroforganizingwomenandaddressingwomen’sissues.Q1.Theauthorstatesthatwhichofthefollowingisaconsequenceofthewomen’smovementofrecentyears?AnincreaseinthenumberofwomenenteringtheAmorepositiveattitudeonthepartofwomentowardAnincreaseintheproportionofclericalworkersthatareAnincreaseinthenumberofwomeninadministrative两个事物：Avs.Avs.differ,(OntheAvs.Althoughtherelationshipbetweenvegetationandclimateisnotasdirectastherelationshipbetweenclimateandlakelevels,themethodoftenworkswellinthetemperatezones.Inaridandsemiaridregionsinwhichthereisnotmuchvegetation,however,smallchangesinoneorafewnttypescanchangethepicturedramatically,makingaccuratecorrelationsbetweenneighboringareasdifficulttoobtain.Although(Although有种让步转折的感觉，但是重点不是在这里)therelationshipbetweenvegetationandclimateisnotasdirectastherelationshipbetweenclimateandlakelevels,themethodoftenworkswellinthetemperatezones.Inaridandsemiaridregionsinwhichthereisnotmuchvegetation,however,smallchangesinoneorafewnttypescanchangethepicturedramatically,makingaccuratecorrelationsbetweenneighboringareasdifficulttoobtain.Q2.Whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageaboutthestudyofpastclimatesinaridandsemiaridregions?Itissometimesmoredifficulttodeterminepastclimaticconditionsinaridandsemiaridregionsthanintemperateregions.Althoughinthepastmoreresearchhasbeendoneontemperateregions,paleoclimatologistshaverecentlyturnedtheirattentiontoaridandsemiaridregions.Althoughmoreinformationaboutpastclimatescanbegatheredinaridandsemiaridthanintemperateregions,datingthisinformationismoredifficult.Itisdifficulttostudytheclimatichistoryofaridandsemiaridregionsbecausetheirclimateshavetendedtovarymorethanthoseoftemperateregions.ThestudyofpastclimatesinaridandsemiaridregionshasbeenneglectedbecauseregionssupportagreatervarietyofntandanimalRecentyearshavebroughtminority-ownedbusinessesintheUnitedStates（暗示了有时间对比）opportunities—aswellasnewandsignificantrisks.CivilrightsactivistshavelongarguedthatoneoftheprincipalreasonswhyBlacksHispanicsandotherminoritygroupshavedifficultyestablishingthemselvesinbusinessisthattheylackaccesstothesizableordersandsubcontractsthataregeneratedbylargecompanies.NowCongress,inapparentagreement,hasrequiredbylawthatbusinessesawardedfederalcontractsofmorethan$500,000dotheirbesttofindminoritysubcontractorsandrecord（只要是并列成分都没有那么关键）theireffortstodosoonformsfiledwiththeernment.Indeed,somefederalandlocalagencieshavegonesofarastosetspecificpercentagegoalsforapportioningpartsofpublicworkscontractstominorityenterprises.Recentyearshavebroughtminority-ownedbusinessesintheUnitedStatesunprecedentedopportunities—aswellasnewandsignificantrisks.CivilrightsactivistshavelongarguedthatoneoftheprincipalreasonswhyBlacks,Hispanics,andotherminoritygroupshavedifficultyestablishingthemselvesinbusinessisthattheylackaccesstothesizableordersandsubcontractsthataregeneratedbylargecompanies.NowCongress,inapparentagreement,hasrequiredbylawthatbusinessesawardedfederalcontractsofmorethan$500,000dotheirbesttofindminoritysubcontractorsandrecordtheireffortstodosoonformsfiledwiththeernment.Indeed,somefederalandlocalagencieshavegonesofarastosetspecificpercentagegoalsforapportioningpartsofpublicworkscontractstominorityQ3.Accordingtothepassage,civilrightsactivistsmaintainthatonedisadvantageunderwhichminority-ownedbusinesseshavetraditionallyhadtolaboristhattheyhavebeenespeciallyvulnerable ernmentalmismanagementofthebeendeniedbankloansatratescomparabletothoseaffordedlargernotbeenabletoadvertiseinthosemediathatreachlargenumbersofpotentialnothadadequaterepresentationinthecenters ernment多determine,cause,correlate减少、削弱、doesnotcorrelateInthesofNewBrunswick,forexample,variouspesticideshavebeensprayedinthepast25yearsineffortstocontrol（暗示了一种因果关系）thesprucebudworm,aneconomicallysignificantpest.ScientistshavenowinvestigatedtheeffectsofthesprayingofM il,oneoftheanti-budwormagentsthatisleasttoxic（比较对比的一种形式要注意一下）toinsect-pollinators.TheystudiedM il’seffectsoninsectmortalityinawidevarietyofwildinsectspeciesandonntfecundity（繁殖，生殖）,expressedasthepercentageofthetotalflowersonanindividualntthatactuallydevelopedfruitandboreseeds.Theyfoundthat（和上文的foundthat、haveinvestigated都是平行的动词，完全都是并列的感觉）themostpronouncedmortalityafterthesprayingofM iloccurredamongthesmallerbeesandonefamilyofflies,insectsthatwereallimportantpollinatorsofnumerousspeciesofntsgrowingbeneaththetreecanopyofs.Thefecundityofntsinonecommonindigenousspecies,thered-osierdogwood,wassignificantlyreduced（数量减少的一种关系—>重要）inthesprayedareasascomparedtothatofntsincontrolplotswhereM ilwasnotsprayed.Thisspeciesishighlydependentontheinsect-pollinatorsmostvulnerabletoM il.Thecreedogwood,aspeciessimilartothered-osierdogwood,butwhichispollinatedbylargebees,suchasbumblebees,showednosignificantdeclineinfecundity.（不是纯粹的对比，是因果关系的对比，由小型蜂类授粉的植物ROD它的数目会减少）SincelargebeesarenotaffectedbythesprayingofM il,theseresultsaddweighttotheargumentthatsprayingwherethepollinatorsaresensitivetothepesticideuseddecreasesntfecundity.InthesofNewBrunswick,forexample,variouspesticides（kw）havebeensprayedinthepast25yearsineffortstocontrolthesprucebudworm,aneconomicallysignificantpest.ScientistshavenowinvestigatedtheeffectsofthesprayingofMil,oneoftheanti-budwormagentsthatisleasttoxictoinsect-pollinators.TheystudiedMil’seffects(a)oninsectmortalityinawidevarietyofwildinsectspeciesandonntfecundity,expressedasthepercentageofthetotalflowersonanindividualntthatactuallydevelopedfruitandboreseeds.TheyfoundthatthemostpronouncedmortalityafterthesprayingofMiloccurredamongthesmallerbeesandonefamilyofflies,insectsthatwereallimportantpollinatorsoffecundityof speciesofntsgrowingbeneaththetreecanopy s.fecundityof commonindigenousspecies,thered-osierdogwood,wassignificantlyreduced(c1VSc1’)inthesprayedareasascomparedtothatofntsincontrolplotswhereMilwasnotsprayed(c1’’)Thisspeciesishighlydependentontheinsect-pollinatorsmostvulnerabletoMil.Thecreedogwood,aspeciessimilartothered-osierdogwood,butwhichispollinatedbylargebees,suchasbumblebees,showednosignificantdecline(vsc2)infecundity.SincelargebeesarenotaffectedbythesprayingofMil,theseresultsaddweighttotheargumentthatsprayingwherethepollinatorsaresensitivetothepesticideuseddecreasesntfecundity（cs）.Q4.Thepassagesuggeststhatthelackofanobserveddeclineinthefecundityofthecreedogwoodstrengthenstheresearchersconclusionsregardingpesticideusebecausethecreedogwoodisaspeciesthatdoesnotresemble creedogwoodisaspeciespollinatedbyabroaderrangeofinsectspeciesthanaremostdogwoodspeciescreedogwoodgrowsprimarilyinregionsthatwerenotsprayedwithpesticide,andsoservedasacontrolfortheexperimentcreedogwoodissimilartothered-osierdogwood,butitsinsectpollinatorsareknowntobeinsensitivetothepesticideusedinthestudygeographicalrangeofthecreedogwoodissimilartothatofthered-osierdogwood,butthelatterspeciesrelieslessonseedsforreproductionQ5.ThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingistrueoftheregionsinNewBrunswicksprayedwithmostanti-budwormpesticidesotherthanM ThefecundityofsomefloweringntsinthoseregionsmayhavedecreasedtoanevengreaterdegreethanintheregionswhereM ilisused.Insectmortalityinthoseregionsoccursmostlyamongthelargerspeciesofinsects,suchasThenumberofseedsproducedbycommonntspeciesinthoseregionsiscomparabletothenumberproducedwhere ilisManymorentspecieshave eextinctinthoseregionsthanintheregionswhere ilisused.Thesprucebudwormisunderbettercontrolinthoseregionsthanintheregionswhere ilissprayed.Toestablishsuchachronologyitisnecessarytodeterminetherelativeamountsoflandice（主题词—>陆地上的冰）thatexistedatvarioustimesintheEarth’spast.Arecentdiscoverymakessuchadeterminationpossible:relativeland-icevolumeforagivenperiodcanbededucedfrom(又意味着一种因果关系，想一下因果双方是什么——>氧的同位素和冰的关系)theratiooftwooxygenisotopes,16and18,foundinoceansediments.Almostalltheoxygeninwaterisoxygen16,butafewmoleculesoutofeverythousandincorporatetheheavierisotope18.Whenaniceagebegins,thecontinentalicesheetsgrow,steadilyreducingtheamountofwaterevaporatedfromtheoceanthatwilleventuallyreturntoit.(一个句子有五个东西，环节丰富，难以记忆)Becauseheavierisotopestendtobeleftbehindwhenwaterevaporatesfromtheoceansurfaces,theremainingoceanwater esprogressivelyenrichedinoxygen18.Thedegreeofenrientcanbedeterminedbyyzingoceansedimentsoftheperiod,becausethesesedimentsarecomposedofcalciumcarbonatessofmarineorganisms,ssthatwereconstructedwithoxygenatomsdrawnfromthesurroundingocean.（记住，记住因果关系的双方）Thehighertheratioofoxygen18tooxygen16inasedimentaryspecimen,themorelandicetherewaswhenthese