语言学第十章

语言学第十章第1页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月FOCUSES：PsycholinguisticsLanguageacquisition:stagesandtheoriesLanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionCognitivelinguisticsImageschemaMetaphorMetonymy2第2页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月1.WhatisCognition?什么是认知？Mentalprocessesofanindividual,informationprocessing信息加工过程Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness察觉,perception感知,reasoning推理,andjudgment判断.3第3页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Threeapproachestothestudyoflgeandcognition:Theformalapproach形式法:addressesthestructuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.4第4页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Thepsychologicalapproach:looksatlgefromtheperspectiveofgeneralcognitivesystemsrangingfromperception感知,memory记忆,attention注意力toreasoning推理.PSYCHOLOGICALLINGUISTICS心理语言学Theconceptualapproach:addresseshowlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.

COGNITIVELINGUISTICS认知语言学5第5页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月2.PsycholinguisticsThestudyofPsychologicalaspectsoflgePsychologicalstates心理状态andmentalactivity思维活动withtheuseoflge6第6页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月StructurallinguisticsCognitivepsychologyAnthropologyNeurosciencesRelatedfields7第7页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Languageacquisition(L1/L2)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognitionSixsubjectsofresearch8第8页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月2.1LanguageAcquisitionLgeacquisition:thelearninganddevelopmentofaperson’slge.FLA:thelearningofanativeorfirstlge.SLA:thelearningofasecondorforeignlge.9第9页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Stages:

Pre-linguisticstages(3-11months)cooing:3months,[k][g][i][u]babbling:6months,fricatives,nasals9months,intonationpatterns10-11months,expressemotions

10第10页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Holophrastic(One-word)stage:objects,actions,motions,routines.11第11页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Two-wordstage:around18monthsChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeWantcookieIwantacookieRequestMoremilkIwantsomemoremilkRequestJoeseeI(Joe)seeyouInformingMycupThisismycupWarningMommychairThischairbelongstoMWarningBigboyIamabigboyBraggingRedcarThatcarisredNamingThatcarThatisacarNaming12第12页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月ChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeNosleepIdon’twanttogotosleepRefusalNottiredIamnottiredRefusalWheredoll?Whereisthedoll?QuestionTrucktableThetruckisonthetableInformingDaddyrunDaddyisrunningInformingJoepushI(Joe)pushed(thecat)InformingPushcatIpushedthecarInformingGivecandyGivemethecandyRequest13第13页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Three-word-utterancestageGivedoggiepaper.Puttruckwindow.Tractorgofloor.14第14页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月FluentgrammaticalconversationstageEmbedoneconstituentinsideanother:Givedoggiepaper.Givebigdoggiepaper.Usemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflectioninthebeginningbutgooduse(90%)bytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.Allpartsoflgeareacquiredbeforethechildturns4.15第15页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月LanguageacquisitiontheoriesReinforcementtheory强化论:stimulus-responsetheory(Bloomfield,Skinner)16第16页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Innatenesstheory内在论：

childrenarebornwithlgeacquisitionsystem,lgedevelopmentmodelconsistsof2parts:lgeinformationandassessmentprocess.17第17页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Cognitivetheory认知论：

childrenacquirethelgethroughassimilationandadaptationandlearnfromtheenvironmentthroughinteractionwiththeenvironment.

18第18页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月2.2LanguagecomprehensionAprocessforustogetfamiliarwiththerealword.Mentallexicon:fromapsychologicalpointofview,westoreagreatdealof

infaboutthepropertiesofwords,retrievablewhenunderstandinglge.Wecaninstinctivelyconnecttheknownitemsstoredinourmindtotheunknownonesandaccesstomoreinfinprocessingandcomprehendinglge.19第19页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月e.g.,wemayusemorphologicalrulestodecomposeacomplexwordlikerewritablethefirstfewtimesweencounteritandafterseveralexposureswemaystoreandaccessitasaunitorword.Itmeansthatfrequencyofexposuredeterminesourabilitytorecallstoredinstances.

20第20页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Connectionism联结主义:readersusethesamesystemoflinksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundunitstogeneratethepronunciationsofwrittenwordsliketoveandtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwordslikestove,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns,likelove.Similarityandfrequencyplayimportantrolesinprocessingandcomprehendinglge,withthenovelitemsbeingprocessedbasedontheirsimilaritytotheknownones.21第21页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月AninitialstepinunderstandinganymessageHowdowegoaboutrecognizingwords?Assoonaspeoplehearspeech,theystartnarrowingdownthepossiblewordsthattheymaybehearing.Awordisidentifiedassoonasthereisonlyonepossibilityleft.speakWordrecognition22第22页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Cohorttheory(集群理论)

:Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1978)Thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.23第23页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Ithypothesizesthatauditorywordrecognitionbeginswiththeformationofagroupofwordsattheperceptionoftheinitialsoundandproceedssoundbysoundwiththecohortofwordsdecreasingasmoresoundsareperceived.24第24页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月交股模型：是Marslen-Wilson提出来的，它包括两个阶段。在词辨认的第一个阶段里，一个词的声学/语音信息激活了记忆中和它相近的词，所以如果这个词是“drive”，所有以[d]开始的词，如“dive,drink,date,dunk”等，都会被激活。这些激活的词构成一个“股”；这些交股的词是在一个目标词的声学信息的基础上提取的，并没有受到其他层面的分析所影响。一个交股结构产生后，词辨认的第二个阶段就开始了。在第二阶段里，所有可能的信息都会影响目标词的选择，这些交互作用的信息资源都起到排除那些和交股不相似的的词的作用。例如进一步的声学/语音信息可能排除一些交股的词，如“date”和“dunk”，而高层次的信息源也可能产生，把别的语义和句法上不合适的词，如“dive”和“drink”，加以排除。最后才辨认到目标词。(桂诗春)25第25页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月26第26页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Factorsinvolvedinwordrecognition:Frequencyeffect(频率效应，词频效应）

:

Oneofthemostimportantfactorsthataffectswordrecognitionishowfrequentlythewordisusedinagivendiscourseorcontext.FrequencyeffectdescribestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheL.27第27页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月RECENCYEFFECTS(近期效应,近现率）:Peoplerecognizeawordfasterwhentheyhavejusthearditorreaditthanwhentheyhavenotrecentlyencounteredit.Recencyeffectsdescribetheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.例如在奥运会期间一些体育项目成为报章杂志和人们交谈的热点，成了高频词，辨认的阈限因而就降低。但是奥运会后，它们又慢慢降温，辨认的阈限又升高。所以近现效应实际上是动态的频率效应。28第28页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月AnotherfactorthatisinvolvedinwordrecognitionisCONTEXT.Peoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.e.g.Thisistheaorta主动脉.Theheartsurgeoncarefullycutintothewalloftherightaorta.29第29页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月

语境可以促进词的辨认，解决词的歧义。

Thecarturnedright.OnemechanismthathasbeenproposedtoaccountforthiskindofcontexteffectisaSEMANTICASSOCIATIONNETWORK(语义关联网络).Itrepresentstherelationshipbetweenvarioussemanticallyrelatedwords.Wordrecognitionisthoughttobefasterwhenothermembersoftheassociationnetworkareprovidedinthediscourse.辨认有语义联系的词比无意义联系的词要快。butter-bread,nurse-doctor等30第30页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月LexicalambiguityHowareambiguouswordsunderstood?Twotheories:1)All

themeaningsassociatedwiththewordareaccessed2)Only

onemeaningisaccessedinitially.31第31页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Areyouengaged?Myfrienddrovemetothebank.Pleasegivemeacamel.32第32页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Theclerk(entering):Areyouengaged?Augustus:Whatbusinessisthatofyours?However,ifyouwilltakethetroubletoreadthesocietypapersforthisweek,youwillseethatIamengagedtotheHonourableLucyPopham,youngestdaughterof...Theclerk:Thatisn’twhatImean.Canyouseeafemale?Augustus:Ofcourse,Icanseeafemaleaseasilyasamale.DoyousupposeIamblind?(GeorgeBernardShaw:AugustusDoesHisBit)33第33页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Anexperiment:Whenpeopleareaskedtofinishasentence,theytakelongerwhenthefragmenttobefinishedcontainsanambiguouswordthanwhentheambiguouswordisreplacedbyanunambiguousterm.e.g.Aftertakingtherightturnattheintersection…AftertakingtheleftturnattheintersectionThisdelaysuggeststhatallmeaningsofambiguouswordsareaccessedandthattimehastobetakentodecideamongthem.34第34页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Otherexperimentssuggestthatundersomecircumstances,onlyonemeaningisinitiallyaccessed.Thefrequencyandcontexteffectshavebeenshowntobeimportanthere.First,ifoneofthemeaningsismuchmorefrequentthantheother,peopletendtoassumethatthewordhasthemorefrequentmeaning.ChairThesemanticcontexteffectalsoplaysasignificantpartindecidingwhichmeaningisthemostappropriate.Bug(spy,spidersandroaches)35第35页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月ComprehensionofsentencesOnceawordhasbeenidentified,itisusedtoconstructasyntacticstructure.Insomecasesthisisquitestraightforward.Thejealouswomanwentaway.However,therearecomplicationsduetotheambiguityofindividualwordsandtothedifferentpossiblewaysthatwordscanbefitintophrases.Sometimesthereisnowaytodeterminewhichstructureandmeaningasentencehas.36第36页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月SyntacticambiguityDifferentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.Thecopsawthespywiththebinoculars.

ThePPwiththebinocularsisambiguous.Itcaneitherbeacomplementoftheverb

seeorbepartofthenounphrase.Someambiguitiesareduetotheambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.

thedeserttrains37第37页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Johnpaintedthecarinthegarage.38第38页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Maylikesthevaseonthecupboardwhichsheboughtyesterday.Thestudentswilldiscusstheirplantoholdadancingpartyintheclassroom.IknowSimonbetterthanyou.Tellmeifyouhavetime.39第39页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Mybrotherwasn’treadingallthetime.ThechairmanappointedMr.Brownanassistant.Thescholarwrotelongthesisandbooks.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.40第40页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月GardenpathsentenceThehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Themanwhohuntsducksout奇妙地抽出时间onweekends.ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.41第41页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Asentenceinwhichthecomprehenderassumesaparticularmeaningofawordorphrasebutdiscoverslaterthattheassumptionwasincorrect,forcingthecomprehendertobebacktrackandreinterpretthesentence.42第42页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月agrammaticallycorrectsentencethatstartsinsuchawaythatareader'smostlikelyinterpretationisanincorrectone,luringhiminitiallyintoanimproperparsethatthenturnsouttobeadeadend.GPSsareusedinpsycholinguisticstoillustratethat,whilereading,humanbeingsprocesslgeonewordatatime.The"gardenpath"isareferencetothesaying"tobeleddownthegardenpath",meaning"tobemisled."43第43页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Themanpushedthroughthedoorfell.大多数听者在语言处理过程的瞬间会倾向于将Themanpushedthroughthedoor理解为NP+V+PP的一个句子结构。只有当听到动词fell时，才折回头对语言输入重新进行处理。这种现象被很形象地称之为“花园路径现象”，就像在花园中走错了道，折回头再寻路径。一般认为，这类歧义现象会对语言的处理过程造成较大的困难。44第44页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Animportantquestioninsentenceprocessingishowpeopledecidewhichstructureanambiguoussentencehas.Peopleeitherconsiderallpossibilitiesanddecidewhichisthebest,orelsetheyusesomestrategytodecidewhichstructuretoconsiderfirst.Severalsuggestionshavebeenmadeabouthowpeopledecidewhichanalysistotryfirst.Oneguessisthatthereisastrongtendencytobuildaslittlestructureaspossible.

45第45页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月MINIMALATTACHMENTTHEORY(最少接触理论):Peoplearemostlikelytochoosethesimplest.Theideaisthatpeopleinitiallyconstructthesimplestsyntacticstructurewheninterpretingthestructureofsentences.46第46页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月ComprehensionoftextSentencescomeintextsanddiscourses,andtheentiretextordiscourseisrelevanttothemessagesconveyed.Textisthenetofpropositions命题

thatmakeupthesemanticinterpretationsofindividualsentences.47第47页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Readersabstractthemainthreadsofadiscourseandinfermissingconnections,constrainedbylimitationsofshort-termmemoryandguidedbyhowargumentsoverlapacrosspropositionsandbylinguisticcuessignaledbythetext.读者受短期记忆的限制，在文本命题中重叠论元和语言线索的引导下抽象出语篇的主要思路并推断出潜在的联系。48第48页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Discourseinterpretation

Resonancemodel共振模式:informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.SchemataanddrawinginferencesSchema图式:apre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.49第49页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月[RESTAURANT]Schema:Entering,ordering,eatingandexiting.EnteringScene:Thecustomerentersarestaurant,looksforatable,decideswheretosit,walkstothetable…50第50页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Johnwentintoarestaurant.Heaskedthewaitressforcoqauvin酒闷仔鸡.Heateit,paidthebillandleft.(perfectlyunderstandable)Johnwentintoarestaurant.Hesawawaitress.Hegotupandwenthome.(doesnotseemtomakesense)51第51页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Apartmentforrent.$500.Istoppedtogetsomegroceriesbutthereweren'tanybasketsleftsobythetimeIarrivedatthecheck-outcounterImusthavelookedlikeajugglerhavingabadday.52第52页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月2.3LanguageproductionTheabilitytoproducewordsisacoreingredientoftheabilitytoproducelargerutterances.Singlewordaccesshasbeenandstillisacentralresearchtopic.Accesstowords词的生成Conceptualization:whattoexpressWordselection:acompetitiveprocessMorpho-phonologicalencoding:targetwords53第53页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月GenerationofsentencesConceptualpreparation:decidingwhattosay–aglobalplanisneededWordretrievalandapplicationofsyntacticknowledgeProcessesofsentencegenerationFunctionalplanning:assigninggrammaticalfunctionsPositionalencoding:gettingintopositionsforeachunit54第54页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月WrittenlanguageproductionSimilartospokenlanguage.Orthographicforminsteadofphonologicalform.However,phonologyplaysanimportantroleinthisprocess.Writershavemoretimeavailableforconceptualpreparationandplanning.55第55页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月3.CognitiveLinguisticsCognitivelinguistics:AnewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflgeItisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolgethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.

56第56页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月3.1Construal识解（方法）Construal:theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways.57第57页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Construaloperation识解操作:conceptualizingprocessesusedinlgeprocessbyhumanbeings.Theunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.58第58页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月1）Attention/salience(注意∕突显)Weactivatethemostrelevantconceptsmorethanconceptsthatareirrelevanttowhatwearethinkingabout.Wedrovealongtheroad.Sheranacrosstheroad.Theworkersdugthroughtheroad.在知觉中，我们把注意力集中在感知到的情景部分。马路被概念化为一条线（一维），一个平面（二维），一个立体（三维）59第59页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月a.Hecleanedthewindow.（玻璃）b.Heopenedthewindow.（窗扇）a.I’vebrokenthewindow.（我）b.Astonehasbrokenthewindow.（石头）60第60页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月2）Judgment/Comparison

判断∕比较Wecannotattendtoallfacetsofasceneatthesametime.Wecannotpayattentiontoeverything.Instead,wefocusoneventsofparticularsalience.61第61页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Figure-ground（图形-背景）62第62页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Figure-groundThegroundseemstobeplacedbehindthefigureextendinginthebackground.Thefigureisthusmoreprominent,orevenmoreinteresting,thantheground.63第63页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Figure-groundalsoseemstoapplytoourperceptionofmovingobjects.Inordertodistinguishbetweenstationaryanddynamicfigure-groundrelations,somecognitivelinguists(egLangacker)usethetermtrajector

（射体）foramovingfigureandlandmark

（界标）forthegroundofamovingfigure.64第64页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月There’sacat[figure]onthemat[ground]Therearestillsomepeanuts[figure]inthebag[ground]Batman[figure]wasstandingontheroof[ground]Thecomputer[figure]underthetable[ground]ismineThespacecraft[figure]washoveringoverMetropolis[ground]65第65页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Tarzan[trajector]jumpedintotheriver[landmark]Spiderman[trajector]climbedupthewall[landmark]Thebird[trajector]wingeditswayoutthewindow[landmark]We[trajector]wentacrossthefield[landmark]I[trajector]’mgoingtoLondon[landmark]66第66页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月3）Perspective∕Situatedness视点∕情景Perspective

：thewayinwhichweviewasceneintermsofoursituatedness.dependingontwothings:wherewearesituatedinrelationtothescenewe'reviewinghowthesceneisarrangedinrelationtooursituatedness.67第67页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Thetreeisbehindtheman.Themanisinfrontofthetree.68第68页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Thetreeisinfrontoftheman.Themanisbehindthetree.69第69页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月3.2Categorization（范畴化）Theprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.Amajoringredientinthecreationofhumanknowledge;Allowsustorelatepresentexperiencestopastones.70第70页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月PrototypeTheory原型理论：amodeofgradedcategorizationincognitivescience,wheresomemembersofacategoryaremorecentralthanothers.eg,whenaskedtogiveanexampleoftheconceptbird,robinismorefrequentlycitedthan,say,penguin.71第71页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Threelevels:basiclevelsuperordinatelevelsubordinatelevel72第72页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Basiclevel Superordinatelevel

Animal

Horse Dog Cat

Chihuahua German dachshund

shepherd

Subordinatelevel

Verticalorganization73第73页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月BLC:thosethataremostculturallysalientandarerequiredtofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest.Thisisthelevelwhereweperceivethemostdifferencesbetween“objects”intheworld.Allcategoriesofdogsaredifferent,buttheystillshareenoughtobedistinguishedfromcats,birds,snakes,primates,etc.Soitisatthislevelthatwecanfindtheidealizedconfigurationoffeatureofacategory范畴特性的最理想化的结构.74第74页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月SPLC:themostgeneralones.Themembersofasuperordinatecategorydonothaveenoughfeaturesincommontoconjureupacommongestaltatthislevel.ButifsomeoneasksyoutothinkofaVEHICLEyoumightthinkofaCARoraBUSorifsomeoneasksyoutothinkofaPLANTyoumightthinkofaTREEoraFLOWER.Thisisparasiticalcategorization寄生范畴.75第75页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月SLC:Theyhaveclearlyidentifiablegestalts完形andlotsofindividualspecificfeatures.Atthislevelweperceivethedifferencesbetweenthemembersofthebasiclevelcategories.OftenthenamesforSUBORDINATELEVELcategoriesaremorphologicallycomplex.Theyaretypicallycompositeforms.raincoat,applejuice,andwheelchair76第76页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月77第77页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月3.3ImageSchema（意象图式）Johnson,Mark.1987.Thebodyinthemind:Thebodilybasisofmeaning,imagination,andreason.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.78第78页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月arecurringstructurewithinourcognitiveprocesseswhichestablishespatternsofunderstandingandreasoning.Imageschemasareformedfromourbodilyinteractions,fromlinguisticexperience,andfromhistoricalcontext.79第79页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月80第80页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Center-peripheryschema

（中央—边缘图式）

Involves:aphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore.Examples(English):ThestructureofanappleAnindividual’sperceptualsphereAnindividual’ssocialsphere,withfamilyandfriendsatthecoreandothershavingdegreesofperipherality81第81页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Containmentschema

（容器图式）Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundary界限enclosedareaorvolume

闭合的区域或容器excludedareaorvolume

不闭合的范围或容器82第82页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Bodilyexperience:humanbodiesascontainers.Structuralelements:interior,boundary,exteriorTheshipiscomingintoview.She’sdeepinthought.Westoodinsilence.83第83页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Cycleschema

（循环图式）Involvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludesthefollowing:AstartingpointAprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktracking不受阻碍的事件进程Areturntotheinitialstate回到起始点84第84页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Examples(English)DaysWeeksYearsSleepingandwakingBreathingCirculationEmotionalbuildupandrelease85第85页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Forceschema

（力量图式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction生理或隐喻因果互动关系.Itincludesthefollowingelements:AsourceandtargetoftheforceAdirectionandintensityoftheforceApathofmotionofthesourceand/ortargetAsequenceofcausation86第86页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Examples(English):Physical:Wind,GravityStructuralelements:force,path,entity,etc.Interaction,directionality,causalityCompulsionBlockageCounterforceDiversionRemovalofrestraint87第87页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Linkschema（连接图式）Consistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andthebondbetweenthem.

EntityA EntityB88第88页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Examples(English):Achildholdinghermother’shandSomeonepluggingalampintothewallAcausal“connection”Kinship“ties”89第89页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Part-wholeschema（部分—整体图式）

Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.Examples(English):Physical:ThebodyanditspartsMetaphorical:Thefamily; ThecastestructureofIndia

印度种姓等级90第90页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Pathschema（路径图式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.91第91页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Examples(English):Physical:Paths;TrajectoriesMetaphorical:Thepurpose-as-physical-goalmetaphor,asexpressedinthefollowingsentences:Tomhasgonealongwaytowardchanginghispersonality.Youhavereachedthemidpointofyourflighttraining.She'sjuststartingouttomakeherfortune.Janewassidetrackedinhersearchforself-understanding.92第92页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Scaleschema（刻度图式）Involvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount,andconsistsofanyofthefollowing:Aclosed-oropen-ended progressionofamountApositionintheprogression ofamount数量级数的位置Oneormorenormsofamount93第93页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Examples:PhysicalamountsPropertiesinthenumbersystemEconomicentitiessuchassupplyanddemand94第94页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Verticalityschema（垂直图式）Involves“up”and“down”relations.Examples:StandinguprightClimbingstairsViewingaflagpoleWatchingwaterriseinatub95第95页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月3.4MetaphorGeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980).MetaphorsWeLiveBy.UniversityofChicagoPress.96第96页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Metaphoristheconceptofunderstandingonethingintermsofanother.Ametaphorisafigureofspeechthatconstructsananalogybetweentwothingsorideas;theanalogyisconveyedbytheuseofametaphoricalwordinplaceofsomeotherword.Forexample:"Hereyeswereglisteningjewels".97第97页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月ConceptualMetaphorTheory

（概念隐喻理论）Metaphorsareactuallycognitivetoolsthathelpusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheworldaroundus.Metaphorisaconceptualmapping,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother,notfromawordtoanother.98第98页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Targetdomain-whatisactuallybeingtalkedabout.Sourcedomain-thedomainusedasabasisforunderstandingtargetXisY.

Targetdomain(X)Sourcedomain

(Y)RATIONALARGUMENTWAR99第99页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Therearethreecategoriesofconceptualmetaphors:Ontologicalmetaphors实体隐喻Structuralmetaphors结构性隐喻Orientationalmetaphors方位性隐喻100第100页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月(1)OntologicalmetaphorsHumanexperienceswithphysicalobjectsprovidethebasisforwaysofviewingevents,activities,emotions,ideas,etc.,asentitiesandsubstances.

Categorizeevents,actionsandstatesassubstances.

人类以自身经验和生理实体为基础，把事件、行为、情感、思想等抽象概念转换为实体。

101第101页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Example:INFLATIONISANENEMYa.Inflationisloweringourstandardofliving.b.Ifthereismuchmoreinflation,we’llneversurvive.c.Weneedtocombatinflation.d.Inflationisbackingusintoacorner.102第102页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Example:THEMINDISAMACHINEa.Mymindjustisn’toperating.b.I’malittlerustytoday.c.We’restilltryingtogrindoutthesolutiontothisequation.103第103页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月(2)StructuralmetaphorsProvideshighlystructured,clearlydelineatedsourcedomaintostructuretargetdomain.Themappinginvolvestwotypesofcorrespondencebetweentargetandsourcedomain,whicharebothgroundedinourexperiencesintheworld.Itimplieshowoneconceptismetaphoricallystructuredintermsofanother.104第104页，课件共144页，创作于2023年2月Example:ARGUMENTISWARYourclaimsareindefensible.Heattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument.Hiscriticismswererightontarget.Idemolishedhisargument.I’veneverwonanargumentwithhim.Youdisagree?OK,shoot!Ifyouusethatstrategy,he’llwipeyouout.Heshotdownallofmyarg