新编简明英语语言学教程chapter2笔记

Chapter2Phonology2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage(Leadin)Languageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsoundssoundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.Soundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage.Languageisa“systemofvocalsymbols”.Speechsoundshadexistedlongbeforewritingwasinvented,andeventoday,insomepartsoftheworld,therearestilllanguagesthathavenowritingsystem.Therefore,thestudyofspeechsoundsisamajorpartoflinguistics.2.2Phonetics2.2.1Whatisphonetics?Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.[p]bilabial,stop.Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview:(Speechproductionspeechtransmissionspeechperception)Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）fromthespeakers‟pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）fromthehearers‟pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”Acousticphonetics（声学语音学）fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.2.2.2OrgansofspeechSpeechorgans,alsoknownasVocalorgans,arethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thediagramofspeechorgans:1.Lips7.Tipoftongue2.Teeth8.Bladeoftongue9.Backoftongue10.Vocalcords3.Teethridge(alveolar)4.Hardpalate5.Softpalate(velum)11.Pharyngealcavity6.Uvula12.NasalcavityTheimportantcavities:☆Thepharyngealcavity咽腔thethroatLarynx:atthetopofthetrachea,thefrontofwhichistheAdam‟sapple.Thisisthefirstplacewheresoundmodificationmightoccur.ThelarynxcontainstheVocalfolds,alsoknownasVocalcordsorVocalbands.ThevocalfoldsareapairofstructurethatlieshorizontallywiththeirfrontendsjoinedtogetheratthebackoftheAdam‟sapple.Theirrearends,however,remainseparatedandcanmovetovariouspositions.Thevocalfoldsareeither(a)apart,(b)closetogether,(c)totallyclosed.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalledvoicing,whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Voiceless:whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced(Voicing):whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.☆Theoralcavity口腔themouthTheoralcavityprovidesthegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstream.([k]/[g],[t]/[d],[θ]/[δ],[f]/[v],[p]/[b])☆Thenasalcavity鼻腔thenoseThenasalcavityisconnectedwiththeoralcavity.Thesoftpartoftheroofofthemouth,thevelum,canbedrawnbacktoclosethepassagesothatallairexitingfromthelungscanonlygothroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthisconditionarenotnasalized.Ifthepassageisleftopentoallowairtoexitthroughthenose,thesoundsproducedarenasalizedsounds.2.2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundsbroadandnarrowtranscriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly（代表字母的符号）e.g.clear[l]Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.e.g.dark[l],aspirated[p](Diacriticsareadditionalsymbolsormarksusedtogetherwiththeconsonantandvowelsymbolstoindicatenuancesofchangeintheirpronunciation.)E.g.:[l][li:f]--aclear[l](nodiacritic);[p][pit]--anaspirated[ph](h表示送气)[l][bild]--adark[l](~)[p][spit]--anunaspirated[p](nodiacritic)2.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsEnglishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:VowelsConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.2.2.4.1ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedeitherintermsofmannerofarticulationorintermsofplaceofarticulation.Intermsofmannerofarticulation根据发音方法分(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated)①Stops闭塞音:theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly[p]/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]②Fricatives摩擦音:theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[∫]/[з],[θ]/[δ],[h](approximant)③Affricates塞擦音:theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives[t∫]/[dз]④Liquids流音:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth[l]alateralsound;[r]retroflex⑤Glides滑音:[w],[j](semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+[h]approximants⑥Nasals鼻音:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit[m],[n],[η]Byplaceofarticulation根据发音部位分(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated)①bilabial双唇音②labiodentals唇齿音:thelowerlipandtheupperteeth[f]/[v]③dental齿音:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth[θ]/[δ]④alveolar齿龈音:thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]⑤palatal腭音:tongueinthemiddleofthepalate[θ]/[δ],[t∫]/[dз],[j]⑥velars软腭音:thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum[k],[g],[η]⑦glottal喉音:theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx[h]:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions[p]/[b],[w](velar)Conclusion:Factorstodescribeaconsonant(1)Stateofvocalcords(VL/VD)(2)Mannerofarticulation(MA)(3)Placeofarticulation(PA)2.2.4.2ClassificationofEnglishvowelsVowelsoundsareclassifiedaccordingto:thepositionofthetongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.HighestPartofthetongue(front,central,back)Frontvowelsaretheonesintheproductionofwhichthefrontpartofthetongueisraisedthehighestsuchas[i:][i][e][æ][a].Whenthecentralpartofthetonguemaintainsitshighestposition,thevowelsthusproducedarecentralvowelssuchas[3:][Ə]and[].Ifthebackofthetongueisheldthehighest,thevowelsthusproducedareOpennessofmouthbackvowelssuchas[u:][u]Roundedorunroundedlipsroundedvowels:AllthebackvowelsinEnglishareroundedexcept[ɑ:].unroundedvowels:AllthefrontvowelsandcentralvowelsinEnglishareunrounded.Lengthofthevowellongvowels:Theyareusuallymarkedwithacolonsuchas[i:]and[ɑ:]shortvowels:othervowelsinEnglishareshortvowelssuchas[e],[ə]and[æ].monophthongs:individualvowelsdiphthongs:producedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.(集中/合口)

2.3Phonology2.3.1PhonologyandphoneticsWhatdoesEnglishphoneticsdealwith?EnglishphoneticsisconcernedwithallspeechsoundsthatoccurintheEnglishlanguage.Itstudieshowthesesoundsareproducedandhowtheyaredescribedandclassified.WhatdoesEnglishphonologydealwith?EnglishphonologyinvestigatesthesoundsystemofEnglish.DifferentfromEnglishphonetics,EnglishphonologyisnotinterestedintheactualproductionofEnglishsounds,butintheabstractaspects:A.thefunctionofsoundswhetherasoundcandifferentiatethemeaningsofwordsB.theirpatternsofcombinationhowsoundsarecombinedtoformapermissiblesoundsequenceBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguagethespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.(Speaker‟smindMouthEarListener‟smind)2.3.2Phone,phoneme,andallophonePhoneme:minimaldistinctiveunitinsoundsystemofalanguage;aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit;notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].Phone:aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment;therealizationofphonemeingeneral.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon‟t.Forexample,inthewordsfeel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:],therearealtogether7phones:[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:],but[ł]and[l]donotdistinguishmeaning,[th]and[t]donotdistinguishmeaningaswell.Allomophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme;realizationsofaparticularphoneme.

2.3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairPhonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they‟reinphonemiccontrast.E.g.pin&bin/p/vs./b/rope&robe/p/vs./b/Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.E.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p]Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.E.g.mailvs.nailbeat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat2.3.4Somerulesinphonology2.3.4.1SequentialrulesSequentialrulestherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,screama)thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.Theaffricates[t∫],[dз]andthesibilants[s],[z],[θ],[δ]arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants.2.3.4.2AssimilationruleAssimilation:articulatoryadaptationofonesoundtoanearbysoundwithregardtooneormorefeatures.Nasalization:/m/,/n/,/ŋ/[-nasal]→[+nasal]/_______[+nasal]Dentalization:/ð/,/θ/[-dental]→[+dental]/______[+dental]Velarization:/k/,/g/,/ŋ/:Word-final/n/becomesvelarbeforevelarplosives/k,g/:tencups;tengirls[-velar]→[+velar]/______[+velar]2.3.4.3DeletionruleDeletionruleittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.E.g.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音2.3.5Suprasegmentalfeaturesstress,tone,intonationsegmentalfeatures（切分特征）thedistinctivefeatureswhichcanonlyhaveaneffectononesoundsegmentarecalledsegmentalfeatures.Suprasegmentalfeaturesthephonemicfeaturesthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments(largerthanphoneme)2.3.5.1StressWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:im‟port;noun:„import;in‟crease;„increase;re‟bel;„rebel;re‟cord…„record…Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:„blackbird;nounphrase:black„bird;„greenhouse;„hotdog…green„house;hot„dog…Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:„dining-room;„readingroom;„sleepingbag…doer:sleeping„baby;swimming„fish;flying„plane…SentencestressSentencestresstherelativeforcegiventothecomponents