考研英语培训：The Brief Guide of Law English

求法明理，正己达人GuideofLawEnglishPartOneTheWorldLegalSystemGenerallyspeaking,oftheworldlegalsystem,categoriescouldbeselected:Civillaw,Commonlaw,Customarylaw,Muslimlaw,Talmudiclaw，andMixedlawsystems,thelatterreferringnottoasinglebuttoacombinationofsystems.foralawschoolstudentwhoreadytolawsystematicallyandthoroughly,theemphasisshouldbevaluedoncivillawandcommonlaw.I.CivilLawSystems（I）Introductionthepoliticalentitieswhoadoptedthisthat,fromothersources,havetheirinspirationlargelyfromtheRomanlawheritageandwhich,bygivingprecedencewrittenlaw,haveresolutelyoptedforasystematiccodificationoftheirgenerallaw.However,willalsofindpoliticalentities,generallywithmixedlegalsystems,whichmaynothaveresortedtothetechniqueofcodificationbutwhichhaveretained,tovaryingdegrees,asufficientnumberofelementsofRomanlaw,inwrittenform,towarranttheirinclusionintheciviliantraditionScotland).theotherhand,thiscategoryalsoincludespoliticalentitieslessinfluencedbyRomanlawbutwhoselaw,whethercodifiedornot,isfoundedonaperceptionoftheroleofstatutelawwhich,inmanyregards,approachesthatofcountrieswitha"pure”civiliantraditionScandinaviancountries,whichoccupyoriginalpositionintheRomano-Germanicfamily).（II）DevelopmentofCivilLawCivilorcodelaw,isoneoftwomajorlegalsystemscurrentlyinuseintheworld.isbasedprimarilyonthewrittencodesofJustinianandNapoleon.Thepredominantfeatureofcivillawistheattempttoestablishabodyoflegalrulesinonesystematizedcode,asinglecomprehensivelegislativeenactment.thissystem,judicialdecisions,law,notasourceoflaw,althoughjudicialprecedentsmaybeusefulinthedecisionofCivillawremainsthebasisofthelegalinFrance,Spain,andotherpartsoftheworldthatonceincludedintheRomanEmpire.II.CommonLawSystems(I)Introductionthatofcivillaw,thecommonlawhastakenonavarietyofculturalformsthroughouttheworld.Notwithstandingthesignificantnuancesthatsuchdiversitysometimespoliticalcircumstancesfurtheraccentuate,thiscategoryincludespoliticalforthemostpart,istechnicallybasedonEnglishcommonlawconceptsandmethodswhichassignapre-eminent1求法明理，正己达人positioncase-law,opposedtoordinarymeansofexpressionofgenerallaw.ThusthiscategoryincludescountriesorpoliticalentitiesthatmaynothaveclosetieswiththeEnglishtraditionandthatsometimespossessabundanceofcodes,legislationandnon-jurisprudentialnormativeinstruments,butforwhichcommonlawjurisprudenceretainsitscharacterthe(II)DevelopmentofCommonLawOnecountrydidnotfollowthecomprehensivecodeapproachtolaw.England,disputesresolvedonacase-by-casebasis,bindingthearbiterofadisputetotheruleelicitedfromthedeterminationofearlier,similardispute---hencecommonlaw.TodayEngland(togetherwiththeUnitedStatesandotherformerBritishcolonies,includingCanada,Australia,andZealand)followsthecommonlaw.understandingoftheconceptsunderlyingthecommonlawofisthusvitaltoanydiscussionofAmericanlaw,includingAmericanbusinesslaw.asense,accordingtoBlackstone,ajurisprudentialscholarandjuryofBritain,thecommonlawisthat“ancientcollectionofunwrittenmaximsandcustoms”whichhave“subsistedimmemoriallyinthiskingdom.”Theseprinciplesrevealedbythecourtsoflawthroughexperienceintherenderingofjudicialdecisions.Commonlawis,therefore,theoverallaccumulationofjudicialdecisions,knownlaw.Theterm"mixed”，whichhavearbitrarilychosenoverothertermssuch“hybrid"or“composite",shouldnotbeconstruedrestrictively,certainauthorshavedone.Thusthiscategoryincludespoliticalentitiestwoormoresystemsapplycumulativelyorinteractively,butalsoentitiesthereisajuxtapositionofsystemsaresultofmoreorlessclearlydefinedfieldsofapplication.IV.CustomaryLawSystemHardlyanycountriesandpoliticalentitiesintheworldtodayoperateunderalegalwhichcouldbesaidtobetypicallyandwhollycustomary.Customtakeonmanyguises,dependingonwhetheritisrootedinwisdombornofconcretedailyexperienceormoreintellectuallybasedonspiritualorphilosophicaltraditions.thatitcustomarylawasystem,notmerelyaccessorytopositivelaw)stillasometimessignificantrole,namelyinmattersofpersonalconduct,inarelativelynumberofcountriesandpoliticalentitieswithmixedlegalsystem.ThisobviouslyappliestoanumberofAfricancountries,ChinaandIndia.Question：1.Whatthedifferencescivillawandcommonlawsystem？(2005目)2求法明理，正己达人OR.Enlistingthestrikingcharacteristicsofthecivilandcommonlawsystemsbythecomparisonofthetwomajorlegalsystems.2.Whatthesourcesoftwomainlawsystems.(2009,甘肃政法大学复试题目)3求法明理，正己达人PartTwoPublicLawandprivateLawI.PublicLawThefundamentaldistinctionismadeinallcivillawsystemspublicandprivatelaw.Thatclassificationisbasictounderstandingofthecivillaw.onething,haveseen,itproducedthedistinctivepatternsoforganizationofthecourtsystemsofcivillawcountries.publiclawdisputesbecamejusticiableinthenineteenthseparatetribunalscreatedtohandlethem.Thejurisdictionofordinarycourtstodayremainslimitedtodisputesgovernedbyprivatelaw,withtheonemajorexceptionofcriminalmatters.Besidesthesejurisdictionalconsequences,thepublic-privatedistinctionhasproducedacharacteristicdivisionoflaborwithinthelegalprofession.Themembersoflawfacultiestendtoidentifythemselveseither“publicists”or“privatists”.Coursesandtreatisestendtofocusononeortheotherarea,despitethefactthattodayanygivensubjectmatterislikelytohaveleastsomepubliclawaspects.Generallyspeaking,however,publiclawconcernsrelationsamongorgansofthestateandbetweencitizensandthestate.includesleastconstitutionallaw,administrativelawandcriminallaw.Privatelaw,dealingwithrelationsamongcitizensorprivateincludesleastcivillawandcommerciallaw.Theclassificationofseveralotherareasisthesubjectofdispute.Civilprocedure,forexample,isincludedbysomesystemswithintheprivategroupofsubjects,andtreatedbyothersbelongingtothefieldofpubliclaw.Historically,thepubliclawthepreserveofthesovereign,prudentlyleftasidebyjurists.nearlyalltheRomanlegalliteraturethathascomedowntousisconcernedwithprivatelaw,andcontinentallegalsciencetraditionallyconcentratedonprivatelaw.Weobservedtoo,thatinthelocalismandlegaldiversityoftheMiddleAges,therelittleplaceforpubliclaw.whenthecentralizedstateanditsadministrativeorgansbegantoemergeonthecontinent(coincidingwiththegrowinginfluenceoflegallytrainedprofessionals),conditionsfavorabletothedevelopmentofadministrativelaw.istospecifypreciselywhatisincludedwithintheconceptofadministrativelaw,withinasingleGenerallyspeaking,itconsistsofthenormswhichregulatetheorganizations,functions,andinterrelationsofpublicauthoritiesotherthanthepoliticalandjudicialauthorities,andthenormswhichgoverntherelationshipsbetweentheadministrativeauthoritiesandcitizens.注释：4求法明理，正己达人ordinarycourt普通法院，在民法法系（大陆法系）国家中，一般有两个法院系统并存，即普通法院和行administrativelawcourtjusticiable可受法院裁判的。练习：ThegovernmentsofstatesandtheUnitedStatesdividedintothreedepartmentsofbranches:,whichisempoweredtomakelaws,,whichisrequiredtocarryoutthelaws,andlaws.,whichischargedwithinterpretingthelawsandadjudicatingdisputesundertheII.PrivateLawJustthetermpubliclawiscommonlyusedtodesignateadministrativelaw,“privatelaw”isoftenusedinterchangeablywithcivillaw.civillawsystems,however,privatelawcomprisestwogranddivisionsofitsown:civillawandcommerciallaw.Civillaw,inprinciple,appliestoeveryoneanditsbasicprovisionsfoundinthecivilcodes,supplementedbyauxiliarystatutes.Commerciallaw,whichconcernsspecificgroupsofpersonsand/orspecificofactivities,isinmostcivillawcountriescontainedinaseparatecommercialcode.ItalyandSwitzerland,therenocommercialcodes,butcommerciallawneverthelessisconsideredandtaughtaseparateprivatelawsubject.Besidescommerciallaw,thereanumberofotherfieldswhichusuallyclassifiedseparatefromcivillaw,suchliteraryandartisticmaritimelaw,insuranceandindustrialandlaborlawwhichdevelopedfromthecivillawoftheindividualemploymentcontract.(I).CivilLawCivillaw(droitcivil)istraditionallyarrangedintreatisesandforteachingpurposesunderthefollowingmajorheadings:thelawofpersons;familylaw;maritalpropertylaw;propertylaw;successionlawandthelawofobligations.Thesecategoriesnotexhaustive,nordotheypreciselycorrespondwiththethesubjectsdistributedwithinthecivilcodesofvariouscountries.Switzerland,forexample,thereisaseparateCodeofObligationandinFrance,familylawisincludedwithinthelawofpersons.Thelawofpersonsconsistsofallthenormsconcerningthestatusoftheindividualsandlegalentitieswhichthesubjectsofthelaw.includesthelegalrulesrelatingtosuchmatters5求法明理，正己达人names,domicile,civilstatus,capacityandprotectionofpersonsunderlegalincapacitiesofvarioussorts.Mostlegalentitieshavelongsubjectedtospecialregulationbyadministrative,commercialandlaborlaw,sothatonlyaassociationsnowleftwithinthedomainofthecivilcodes.Familylawcoversmarriageformation;thelegaleffectsofmarriage;marriageterminationbydivorce,separation,andannulment;filiation;andfamilysupportobligations.allpartsoffamilylaw,extensivecoderevisionhastakenplaceundertheinfluenceofthreemajortrends:theliberalizationofthegroundsfordivorce;theequalizationofthepositionsofwomenandmenintheareasoffamilydecision-makingandpropertyrights;andtheassimilationofthestatusofchildrenbornoutsidelegalmarriagetothatofchildrenborntoparentswhomarriedtoeachother.Maritalpropertylaw,propertylawandsuccessionlaw,istraditionallytreatedaseparateareaofcivillaw.Thecivilcodesestablishandregulatea“legalmaritalpropertyregime”,thethatgovernsthepropertyrelationsofallspouseswhodonotchoosealternativeregimebymarriagecontract.Thelegalregimeistypicallyaformofcommunityusuallywithpre-maritalpropertyandpropertyacquiredthroughgiftorinheritancekeptseparateifitbeidentifiedsuch.Themoderntrendfavorsformsoftheso-calleddeferredcommunityinwhichthespousestreatedseparateownersofwhatevertheyrespectivelyacquireduringthemarriage,butpropertyacquiredduringthemarriageisdividedequallyuponterminationofthemarriagebydivorceordeath.additiontoestablishingthelegalregime,themaritalpropertyprovisionsofthecivilcodestypicallyestablishandregulateanumberofalternativeregimeswhichmaybechosenbycontract,welltheproceduresformakingandalteringmarriagecontracts.PropertylawincivillawsystemsmakesadistinctionbetweenmovableandimmovablewhichroughlycorrespondstothecommonlawdistinctionbetweenpersonalandrealHistorically,inthecommonlaw,landofgreaterimportancethanchattels,andthelawoftheoldercodes,reflectsthatstateofaffairs.theliberaltradition,theofownershipconsideredvirtuallyabsolute,andtheprotectionofprivateregardedimportantfunctionofthestate.practice,theabsolutenessofpropertyrightdescribedinthecivilcodeshaslongsinceextensivelylimitedbypubliclawlegislation,bynewconstitutionsandbyjudicialinterpretation.Anothertraditionalattributeofcivillawownership,notfoundinthecommonlaw,isitsunitarycharacter.Althoughthecivillawrecognizescertainformsofco-ownership,itisforacivillawlawyertoconceiveofownershipa“bundleofrights”thatbeparcelledoutinvariousways,6求法明理，正己达人ordividedovertime(isthewithcommonlawpresentandfutureinterests).Propertyisthoughtofhavingoneowner(oronesetofconcurrentowners)andotherinterestsaffectingitgenerallythoughtofrestrictionsorencumbrancesonthetitleoftheowner.ofrealestatenotconsideredpropertyall,butfallwithinthecontractualareaofthelawofobligations.moderncivillaw,however,theideaofunitaryownershipseemstobeerodingsomewhatnewformsofownershipgaininSuccessionlawcoversthedispositionofpropertyupondeathbywillorbyintestateinheritance.Freedomoftestationincivillawsystemsistypicallylimitedinfavorofthetestatorschildrenwhoentitledtoareservedsharesoftheirparent'sestate.UnlikeAmericanlaw,civillawsystemsdonottraditionallyaccordsuchaforcedsharetothesurvivingspouse,whoseeconomicintereststhoughttobesufficientlyprotectedbythedivisionofmaritalpropertyupondeath.Themoderntrendeverywhere,however,hastoimprovegraduallythesuccessoralpositionofthesurvivingspouse,andinsomecountries,Germanyforexample,thishasbroughtaboutareservedshareinhisorherfavor.TwotypicalaspectsofcivillawsuccessionhaveattractedconsiderableinterestintheUnitedStates.Thefirstisthepracticeofhavingawillauthenticatedbeforeanotaryduringthelifetimeofthetestator,aprocedurewhichdispenseswiththeforprobate.Thesecondisthefactthat,inthenormalsituation,thereisnothingcorrespondingtoourperiodofadministrationofadecedent’sestate.inheritancesimplyvestsupondeathinthepersonsdesignatedbythewillorthelawsofintestatesuccession,subjecttotheirofrenunciation.AnotherideafromthecivillawofsuccessionhaswidelyincorporatedintoAmericanprobatelawreforms.Thisistheinclusionofcertainofintervivos(生前，在世)transferswithinthedecedent'sestateforpurposesofcalculatingtheforcedThelawofobligationsisthemosttechnical,abstractandfirstsight)stableofthecivillaw.allortransactionswhichrisetorightsorclaimsandiscustomarilydividedintothreeparts:thelawofcontracts,thelawoftort(delict),andthelawofunjustenrichment.Thecontractlawsectionsofthecodestypicallybeginwithageneralruleswhichapplicabletoallcontracts,andthensetforthspecialrulesforparticularsortsofcontracts:sales,leases,loans,Thecivillawconceptionoftortliabilityisaunifiedone:incontrasttothecommonlawwhichdevelopedseparatepigeonholesfordifferentkindsofharms,itisalawoftortratherthantorts.Thecivillawofunjustenrichmenthasbuiltupfromgeneralprincipleswithaheavycomponentoflaw.(II)CommercialLawCommerciallaw(droitcommercial)generallyincludescorporationsandotherbusiness7求法明理，正己达人associations,securities,banking,andnegotiableinstruments,wellothercommercialtransactions.notedinourhistoricalintroductionthatcommerciallawhaddevelopedfrommercantilecustomsandthepracticeofmerchants’courtsintoawell-establishedseparateofprivatelawbeforethecodificationperiod.Thedichotomycivilandcommerciallawsurvivedbothcodificationandthecentralizationofjustice,thanksmainlytoFrancewhichadoptedtheCodedeCommercein1807andestablishedseparatecommercialcourtswithinthefirstlevelofjurisdiction.Mostothercivillawcountriesfollowedsuit.Thedivisionbetweencivilandcommerciallawisnot,however,absoluteorclear-cut.First,allsystemshavefoundtheconceptsofmerchantorcommercialdifficulttodefineforpurposesofdeterminingwhetheratransactionisgovernedbycivilorcommerciallaw.Second,thecommercialcodesthegeneralprinciplesandinternalcoherenceofthecivilcodes.Thus,civillawisfrequentlybroughtintofillthegapsinthecommercialcodesandtheirsupplementarylaws.Thisissomuchthethatsomewritersspeakofthecivilizationofcommerciallaw”,bywhichtheythatcommerciallawisbecomingaspecialfieldwithinthecivillaw.Third,thedifferencesfurtherdiminishedbyacountertrendtoward“commercializationofthecivillaw”.Thecommerciallawinfluenceonthecivillawhasmanifesteditselfinareductionofunnecessaryformality,increasedprotectionofreliancebythirdparties,andatendencytoviewtransactionspartsofon-goingrelationships,ratherthanisolatedlegalevents.inSwitzerland,andtheNetherlands,thedecisionhasmadetodispensewithaseparatecommercialcode,adevelopmentwhichmayrepresentthewaveofthefuture.However,thesametimethatcivilandcommerciallaw,throughmutualenrichmentcomingtoresemblepartsofaunifiedfieldwithinprivatelaw,anotherlegaltrendisoperatingtoremovemuchofcommerciallawfromprivatelawaltogether.Originallybasedoncustom,thencodifiedontheliberalprincipleofindividualfreedomofcontract,commerciallawhasincreasinglyshapedbyabodyoflegislationregulatingcommercialandcorporateOneofthismovementhasthedevelopmentincivillawcountries,incommonlawnations,ofaseparatebodyofconsumerlawinwhichthedistinctionbetweenmerchantandnon-merchantissignificant.Anotheraspectisthesubjectionofcommercialactivitygenerallytorequirementsforofficiallicenses,permits,andsoon.Wherestateeconomicplanningisextensive,itistodistinguishsomepartsofcommerciallawfromadministrativelaw.Totakeaccountoftheroleofpublicregulationofthemarket,Frenchandwritershaverenamedtheclassification.Insteadof“commerciallaw”,theyrefertothefieldof“commercialandeconomiclaw”,economiclawbeingtheregulatorylawofthestate”.注释：【1includesthelegalrulesrelatingtomattersasnames,domicile,civilstatus,capacityandprotectionofpersonsunderlegalincapacitiesofvarioussorts.它包括8求法明理，正己达人行为能力的各种人的保护之类问题的法律规则。civilstatusApersonslegalcondition,是一个内涵广泛的法律用语，与大陆法上的“民事权利能力”并不完全对capacity力，资格；legalincapacities法律上无行为能力。（同段上文）legalentities法律实体；subjectsofthelaw法律主体。同段下文）subjectto作为法律英语中最常见的短语，可以有多种翻译方法，如“隶属的、从属的、受……方式应依上下文定夺。例如，曉subjecttoratification须经批准方可生效；tosubjecttothelawoftheland受国家法律的管辖。regulation规则，管理规定，条例。文中havelongbeensubjectedtospecialregulation久以来受特别规定的约束。association社团；合伙。【2】Familylawcoversmarriageformation；thelegaleffectsofmarriage；marriageterminationdivorce,separation,andannulment；filiation；andfamilysupportobligations.由于离婚、分居、宣告婚姻无效所致的婚姻终止，私生子父亲的确定，以及家庭成员的扶养义务。annulment废除，无效；如annulmentofmarriage注销婚姻，宣告婚姻无效。civilcivilright3)acivilservant4acivilceremony世俗结婚指不采用宗教仪式而由政府官员证婚的结婚）。theassimilationofthestatusofchildrenbornoutsidelegal（penal,criminalncivillaw2（marriagetothatofchildrenborntoparentswhoaretoeachother非婚生子女与婚生子女地位平等。其assimilationto...意为"视同”。【3movableproperty,personalproperty动产。immovableproperty,realproperty不动产（同段下文）chattel动产，有形财产；rightofownership所有权；privateproperty私有财产。【4】legaltitle普通法上的所有权，法定所有权（产权）。与之相对者：equitytitle法上的所有权。这种分类在信托法最为典型。（（同段上文）co-ownership财产共有（权），共同所有制（同下文的sharedownership同段下文）unitaryownership单一所有权。练习：ofthefollowingstatementsareNOTtrueaccordingtothetext？（（（（（（（（1Privateisoftenusedtodesignate2Laborlawisdoubtlesslywithinofprivate3Commerciallawisarrangedinaseparatecommercialcodeineverylawcountry.4lawofpersonsconcernsstatusofsubjectsof5Mostpartsoffamilylawhaveremainedstable.6statusofillegitimatechildrenisnotequaltooflegitimatechildren.7spouseschooseanalternativelegalbymarriagecontractundermaritalpropertylaw.8）Underdeferredcommunityproperty,spousescandivideequallypropertyacquiredduringmarriageatofmarriageterminationbydivorce.（9）Propertylawinlawcountriesmakesadistinctionbetweenpersonalrealproperty.absolutenessof9求法明理，正己达人propertyrightisnotlimitedbypubliclawlegislation.（（（（（（10Freedomoftestamentislimitedbya4treservedshare”inlawsystems.11Successorsrenounceofsuccession.12lawofunjustenrichmentisapartoflawofobligations.13divisionbetweencommerciallawisdistinct.14Laborlawisinlawcountriesarrangedinaseparatelaborcode.15divisionbetweenpublicprivatelawbeenchallenged.10求法明理，正己达人PartThreeCommonLawandItsBasicPrinciplesAthousandyearsagotheonlysourcesoflawthebasicdictatesofhumanityandlocalcustoms.AftertheNormanConquestof1066thejudgesattemptedtoapplyacommonlawtothewholeThelawbasedpartlyontheNormanlaw.TheywiththemfromFranceandpartlyonEnglishcustomswhichtheyfoundtobewidespreador“general”.Thecreationofthiscommonlaw,however,strictlyonhocbasis,problembeingsettleditoneactuallysatdowntocompilealistofthelaws.Howthenpeopletoknowwhatacrime,orintheeventofadisputebetweencitizens,whattherespectiverightsofeachcitizen?Indeed,howtheytoknowthesethingsnow?Theansweristwo-fold.asmallnumberofoldlegaltextbooks,compiledfromthetwelfthcenturyonwards,havesurvivedintothepresentSecondly,andmuchmoreimportant,thereisthedoctrineofjudicialprecedent.Statedthismeansthatintheirworkofsettlingdisputes,judgesguidedbythedecisionsofjudgesinearliersimilarSo,ifawhichistobetriedtodayissimilartoatriedlastitsresultislikelytobethesame.thisabodyoflegalprincipleshasbuiltup,whichmaybediscoveredbyexaminingthejudgmentsinallcasestriedtodate.thisreason,“precedent”,isoftenreferredto“case-law”orstaredecisis.issometimessaidthatinreachinghisdecisionaismerelydeclaringwhatthecommonlawhasbeen.ahastomakeadecisiononapointoflawwhichhasneverarisenbeforeinanycourt,thisviewseemsalittleunrealistic,andtheappearsactuallytobecreatinglaw—hencetheexpression“judge-madelaw”forjudicialprecedent.Whenasimplyappliestothefactsofoneparticularalegalrulepreviouslyenunciatedinearliertrial,hisdecisionisknownadeclaratoryprecedent,becauseitdeclaresexistinglaw.theotherhand,ifthecaseisunlikeanypreviousone,sothatitiswithoutprecedent,thenthemustmakeuphisownmindwhatthecommonlawisorshouldbe.Hisdecisionwillthenbeknownoriginalprecedentbecauseanewlegalruleoriginatesfromit.thisthecommonlawcontinuestogrowandconsolidateonitshocbasis.theresomanydecidedcasesonalmostconceivablelegaltopic,thatthedirectimportanceofgeneralcustom,oncethefoundationofourlaw,hasreduced.Twofactorshaveespeciallyimportantinthedevelopmentofprecedentasourceoflaw.thedevelopmentofprintinginthesixteenthcenturyledtomanymorereportsofdecidedcasesbecomingreadilyavailable.Thegrowthofprecedentasourceoflawobviouslydependedonthosedecisionsbecomingwidelyknown,forclearlythecouldnot“follow”earlierdecisionswithoutknowingwhattheywere.Secondly,thehierarchyoftheEnglishcourtsbecamemoreclearlyestablished.(SeeTable11求法明理，正己达人below)HierarchyoftheCourts1HouseLordsBindsBindsalllowercourts(2-5below)alllowercourts(3-5below)and(a)CourtAppeal(CivilDivision)2(b)CourtAppeal(CriminalDivision)HighCourtBindsBindsBindsBindsalllowercourts(3-5below)AlllowercourtsNobody345CountyCourtMagistrates'CourtsandallothersNobodyTounderstandTableaboveitisnecessarytorealizethattheretwokindsofprecedent:bindingprecedent,theisboundtoapplythelegalruleenunciatedintheearliercase,andpersuasiveprecedentthewilloftenfollowtheearlierdecisionbutmayrefusetobepersuadedifhechooses.[4]example,theCourtisboundtofollowtheHouseofLords.TheCourtofAppeal(CriminalDivision),however,maychoosewhetherornottofollowitsowndecisioninearlierthoughitwillitseriousconsiderationapersuasiveprecedent.ThedecisionsofthePrivyCouncilpersuasiveprecedent,thedecisionsofoneCourtonanother.Underthedoctrineofjudicialprecedent,aamaybeobligedtoapplyalegalprinciplelaiddowninearliercase.TheprincipleisusuallyknownbytheLatinphraseratiodecidendi(thereasonfordeciding).Theratiodecidendimustbealegalprincipleandonlytheprincipleoflawwhichactuallyappliedbytheinthebeitsratiodecidendi.Anyhypotheticalexamplepostulatedbytheisnotoftheratiodecidendi,butisknownbyanotherLatintag:obiterdictum(plural,dicta)---“athing,orthings,saidbytheway”.Also,ifthreeormorejudgessittingtogetherandoneofthemtakesadifferentviewofthelawfromthatoftheothers,thenhisdissentingjudgmentisobiter,theviewofthelawwhichheexpressesnotinappliedinthe注释：【【【1】adhoc为此，特别的，专门的，临时的。2】judicialprecedent司法判例/3】[拉丁文]因循前例/遵循先例，指较高级的法院在处理某一类事实确立一项法律原则后，在以后该法院或同级法院、下级法院在处理案件中碰到同类事实时应遵循该已确立的法律原则。英国在1966英格兰各级法院都严格遵守“因循先例”原则，之后上议院对这一原项稍微放松。美国法院特别是最高法院则较为灵活，它可以拒绝遵循或者废止其先例。【4】...bindingprecedent,whereisboundtoapplylegalruleenunciatedinearliercase,persuasiveprecedent,wherejudgewilloftenfollowearlierdecisionbutrefusetobepersuadedif12求法明理，正己达人chooses.有约束力的先例下，法官必须适用先前案例所确立下来的规则；在只具有说服力的先例下，法官尽管遵循这些决定，但是他们也可以选择拒绝适用。【5bindingprecedentpersuasiveauthority有说服力的法律根据，指对法庭没有拘束力但对判决的做出具有参考、借鉴意义及某种说服力的判例或其他法律根据。【【【6PrivyCouncil枢密院，是管辖英联邦殖民地案件的最高上诉法院。7ratiodecidendi判决依据（理由），指判决案件的法律依据。8】obiterdictum（法官的）附带意见，法官在做出判决的过程中就某一与案件并不直接相关的法律问题所作的评论；该评论并非为本案判决所必要，因此不具有判例的拘束力，但是往往具有借鉴的意义。13求法明理，正己达人PartFourCommonLawandEquityCommonLawThecommonlawoneofthethreemainhistoricalsourcesofEnglishlaw.Theothertwolegislationandequity.Thecommonlawevolvedfromcustomandthebodyoflawcreatedandadministeredbytheking’scourts.Here,threehavetobementioned:（1）KingAlfredtheGreatearlytimes——beforeKingtheGreat(reigned871---899)—therenoofjusticethatappliedtothewholeofthenotruledbyasinglemonarch.Differentpartsofthecountryhaddifferentlaws.ThecourtswerethecommunalcourtsoftheShires.TherehundredsofcourtsheldbylandownersandthecourtoneamongcompiledTheLawsofAlfred,whichviewedthesourceofCommonandEnglishjudicialsystems.（2）WilliamtheConquerorWhenWilliamtheConquerorinvadedEnglandin1066,hetookoverthemostefficientlygovernedkingdominEurope,buthesoongraspedthetoreinforceitsofcentralornationalgovernment.[1]Thismeanttoprovidesomeofjusticeoverwhichthekinghadcontrol,forWilliamunderstoodthatitonlybymakinglaws