简明语言学教程Chapter2Phonology

Chapter2Phonology2.1ThePhonicmediumoflanguageSpeechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Languageisfirstperceivedthroughitssound.Thusthestudyofsoundisofgreatimportanceinlinguistics.Thelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguageandtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.2.2PhoneticsLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds----soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.Phonetics----Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.[p]bilabial,stop.3branchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics----fromthespeakers’pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds〞Auditoryphonetics----fromthehearers’pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived〞Acousticphonetics----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.Itstudies“thephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsounds〞(语音流的物理特征)2.2.2OrgansofspeechPharyngealcavity----thethroat:air-lungs-windpipe-glottisTheoralcavity----themouth:

Thegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundhere.tongue-themostflexibleandresponsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyotherNasalcavity----thenose:

Itisconnectedwiththeoralcavity.

LipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavityThediagramofspeechorganstongue

the

mostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyothere.g[k][g]:obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararea[j]:thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongue[t][d]:theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthevelarridge[θ][ð]:partialobstructionbetweentheupperfrontteethandthetipofthetongueIPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet1,Astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription2,ThebasicruleofIPAUsingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagetorepresentonespeechsound.Broad&NarrowTranscription1,Broadtranscription:Transcriptionwithlettersymbolsonly,withoutdiacritics,usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose.e.g.[help],[kæn],[spi:k],[litl]forhelp,canandspeakandlittle.2,Narrowtranscription:Transcriptionwithletter-symbolsanddiacritics,usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy.e.g.[kãn],[hełp]forcanandhelp.ãandłareusedinsteadof[æ]and[l].

Theuseofdiacritics1.[l]:leaf[li:f]

clear[l]:occurringbeforeavowel,nodiacriticsisneededtoindicate

feel[fi:l],build[bild]

dark[ł]:occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant▲diacritics[~]isusedtoindicate2.[p]:spit[spit]unaspirated[p]:

thepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent

pit[phit]

aspirated[p]:pronouncedwithastrongpuffofair▲diacritics[h]isusedtoindicate

Classificationofconsonants----Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:ThemannerofarticulationTheplaceofarticulation2.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsVowels/Consonants:WhethertheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmeetswithobstructionThemannerofarticulationstops/plosives:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];fricatives:[f],[v],[s],[z],[ʃ],[ʒ],[θ],[ð],[h];affricates:[tʃ],[dʒ];liquids:[l](lateral),[r];nasals:[m],[n],[ŋ];glides/semivowels:[w],[j].Theplaceofarticulationbilabial:[p],[b],[m],[w];labiodental:[f],[v];dental:[θ],[ð];alveolar:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];palatal:[ʃ],[ʒ],[tʃ],[dʒ],[j];velar:[k],[g],[ŋ];glottal:[h].TheplaceofarticulationBilabial;Labiodental;Dentalorinterdental;Alveolar;Palatoalveolar;Palatal;Velar;Uvular;Glottal.TheclassificationofEnglishconsonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelarGlottalStopsorplosivesVL[p][t][k]VD[b][d][g]Frica-tivesVL[f][θ][s][ʃ][h]VD[v][ð][z][ʒ]Affri-catesVL([tʃ])[tʃ]VD([dʒ])[dʒ]NasalsVD[m][n][ŋ]LiquidsVD[l],[r]GlidesVD[w][j]

1.Accordingtothepositionofthetongueinthemouth:front/central/backvowelsfrontvowel:thefrontpartoftonguemaintainsthehighestposition[i:][i][e][æ][a]centralvowel:thecentralpartofthetongueisheldhighest[ə:][ə][ʌ]backvowel:thebackofthetongueisheldhighest[u:][u][ɔ:][ɔ][a:]Classificationofvowels2.Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,openvowelsclosedvowels:

[i:][i][u:][u]semi-closevowels:[e][ə:]semi-openvowels:[ə][ɔ:]openvowels:[æ][a][ʌ][ɔ][a:]3.Accordingtotheshapeofthelips:rounded/unroundedvowelsunroundedvowels:allthefrontvowelsroundedvowels:allthebackvowelsexcept[a:]4.Accordingtothelengthofthevowels:longvowels,shortvowelsThediagramofVowelsClassificationfrontclosesemi-closesemi-openopen[i:][i][e][ə:][æ][a][ʌ][ə][u:][u][ɔ:][ɔ][a:]

central

back2.3PhonologyPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.2.3.1Phonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Question：IsChang-wooChinese?2.3.2Phone,phoneme,allophonePhone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.

e.g[ph](asinpit),[p](asinspit),[s],[t]…Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t.

e.g[s]and[t]do,asin[si:m]and[ti:m]

[th]and[t]don’t,as[stɔp][sthɔp]▲whatdoesnotdistinguishmeaninginonelanguagemayprobablydoinanotherlanguagePhoneme----aphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontexte.gtherelationbetweenaspirated[ph]andunaspirated[p]correspondstothatbetweenclear[l]anddark[ł]:thereisaslightdifferenceinthewaytheyarepronounced,butsuchadifferencedoesn’tgiverisetodifferenceinmeaning

/p/and/l/aretwophonemeintheEnglishsoundsystem▲phonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets:[]phonemesareplacesinslashes://Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.e.gdark[l]andclear[ł]areallophonesofthephoneme[l]▲thechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandombutrule-governedQuestion：IsChang-wooChinese?2.3.3Phonemiccontrast,Complementarydistribution,MinimalpairPhonemiccontrast----differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bit]and[pit].Complementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,

e.gdark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].Question：IsChang-wooChinese?Minimalpair--Twodifferentwordsthatareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegment

whichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings.

pin-bin,bin-tin,tie-die,choke-joke,pill-bill,bill-till,till-kill.

Theyshouldmeet3conditions:(1)Theyaredifferentinmeaning.(2)Theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment.(3)Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings.Question：IsChang-wooChinese?Minimalset

---Agroupofwordswhichmeetalltheabove3conditions.

Forexample:

big–dig–pig–wig;

pill–bill–till–kill;

mail–sail–tail;

lake–make–sake–bake–cake–fake;Question：IsChang-wooChinese?2.3.4SomerulesofphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionruleQuestion：IsChang-wooChinese?SequentialrulesSequentialrules----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI〞mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Question：IsChang-wooChinese?Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)

thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)

thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)

thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*[N]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“牛肉，我，俄语……〞Question：IsChang-wooChinese?AssimilationruleAssimilationrule----assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying〞afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilarAssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊haiya跳啊tiaowae.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreet

[d]:alveolarstop齿龈闭塞音[n]:alveolarnasalinconceivable

[k]:velarstop软腭闭塞音[n]:velarnasal,i.e.[ŋ]input

[p]:bilabialstop[im]Question：IsChang-wooChinese?DeletionruleDeletionrule----ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresentede.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.Question：IsChang-wooChinese?2.3.5SuprasegmentalfeaturesSuprasegmentalfeatures----thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):Stress

：wordstress1.noun-verbe.g'importn.im'portv.'rebeln.re'belv.2.compoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelementse.g'blackbird:aparticularkindofbird

black'bird:anybirdwithblackcolor

3.Thecombinationof–ingformsandnounscompoundnouns:'dining-room,‘readingglassesthe–ingformservesasamodifierofthenounnotcompoundnouns:sleeping'baby,swimming'fishthenounisthedoeroftheactionindicatedbythe–ingformsentencestressnormallystressedpartsinEnglishsentence:nouns,mainverbs,adjecti