UN Tourism：2023年旅游签证开放报告

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Tourism

VisaOpenness

Report2023

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Tourism

VisaOpenness

Report2023

Acknowledgments

TheTourismVisaOpennessReport2023wasdevelopedbytheSustainableDevelopmentofTourismDepartmentoftheWorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO),overseenbyMs.ZoritsaUrosevic,UNWTOExecutiveDirector.

Dr.DirkGlaesser,DirectoroftheDepartment,supervisedthereport’spreparationwithleadcontributionsfromMs.LornaHartantyo,TechnicalCoordinatorandMs.CordulaWohlmuther,Coordinator.

Mr.GordonClarkandMs.LauraDelgadoassistedincodingthevisapolicies,whichinformedthereport’scontent.

Ms.SandraCarvão,Director,andMr.KananAliyev,Officer,oftheUNWTOTourismMarketIntelligenceandCompetitivenessDepartmentandMs.ClaravanderPol,Directora.i.oftheUNWTOStatisticalDepartment,providedinputtothereport.

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Tableofcontents

9

11

1.COVID-19-relatedtravelrestrictions2020–2023

2.Theroleofvisas

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16

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3.Theglobalandregionaldimensionstovisas

3.1.Theglobaldimension

3.1.1.Traditionalvisa

3.1.2.eVisa

3.1.3.Visaonarrival

3.1.4.Novisarequirementorvisaexemption

3.2.Evolutionofglobalvisapolicies

3.2.1.Visapoliciesin1980

3.2.2.Evolutionofvisafacilitationsince1980

4.Worldwideopenness

4.1.Theopennessscore–Regionalperspectivesandevolutionovertime

4.1.1.Africa

4.1.2.TheAmericas

4.1.3.AsiaandthePacific

4.1.4.Europe

4.1.5.MiddleEast

4.1.6.Conclusion

4.2.Thetwentymostopendestinations,2023

4.3.Emergingandadvancedeconomies

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5.Reciprocity

5.1.Reciprocityofvisapoliciesin2023:mainfindings

5.2.Reciprocity:focusoneconomicandpoliticalblocs

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6.Interregionalandintraregionalperformances

7.Mobilityofcitizens–outboundpotentialandvisas

8.Conclusions

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49

Annex1:Worldpopulationsubjecttovisapoliciesofdestinations,2023

Annex2:UNWTOregionsandsubregions

Referencesand

52

bibliography

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Allaroundtravelfacilitation

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Keyfindings

•AftertheliftingofCOVID-19pandemic-relatedtravelrestricions,theopennessofdestinationstointernationaltravelhasreturnedtopre-pandemiclevels..

•Thetrendovertimeindicatesthatfewerpeopleworldwiderequireatraditionalvisatotravel.While77%oftheworld’spopulationwasrequiredtoapplyforatraditionaltourismvisabeforedeparturein2008,thisfigurehasfallento47%in2023.

•Theuseofelectronicvisas(eVisas)hasincreasedsixfoldfrom3%to18%between2013and2023.

•Destinationshavebecomelessreciprocalintheirvisapoliciescomparedtopreviousyears,demonstratingagrowingtrendofunilateralactioninfacilitatingtravelforinternationaltourism.

•Digitalizationinthepost-COVID-19periodhasincreasedfurther,ashavespecificnewvisatypes,suchasdigitalnomadvisas.

Keydata,asofMay20231

•47%oftheworldpopulationaresubjecttotraditionalvisa2requirements.

•18%oftheworldpopulationcanapplyforaneVisa.

•14%oftheworldpopulationcanobtainavisaonarrival.

•Only21%oftheworld’spopulationcantravelfortourismpurposeswithoutanykindofvisa(refertotable4.1).

•AsiaandthePacifichavethehighestopennessscore3ofallworldregions,with46points.

•ThemostopensubregionsareSouth-EastAsia,EastAfricaandtheCaribbean.

•SouthAsiaandWestAfricaarethesubregionsthathaveseenthegreatestincreasein

opennesssincethelastUNWTOreportin2018.

•CentralandNorthAfrica,NorthAmericaandNorthernandWesternEuroperemainthemostrestrictivesubregions,withNorthAmericabeingthemostrestrictiveworldwide.

1AftercompletingdatacollectioninMay2023,dataanalysisstarted.Duringthepreparationperiodofthecurrentreportsomedevelopmentswereobservedasfollows:

i.Chinaintroducedaunilateralvisa-freeentrypolicyforholdersofordinarypassportsfromFrance,Germany,Italy,theNetherlands,SpainandMalaysiaduringtheperiod1December2023to30November2024.Formoreinformationpleaseconsult:

TheStateCouncilofthePeople’sRepublicofChina(2024),‘China’svisa-freepolicyfacilitatestravelsfromsixcountries’,onlineavailableat:

/news/202401/02/content_WS659342f3c6d0868f4e8e2b0b.html

[10-01-2024].

ii.TheGulfCooperationCouncil(GCC)approvedtheUnifiedGulfTouristVisaSystemproposal,whichisscheduledtobeimplementedbetween2024and2025.ThisvisaregimewillallowindividualstovisitseveralofthesixmemberstatesoftheGCC.Formoreinformationpleaseconsult:

CooperationCouncilfortheArabStatesoftheGulf(2023),‘HEGCCSG:TheUnifiedGCCTouristVisaProject,onlineavailableat:

/en-us/MediaCenter/NewsCooperation/News/Pages/news2023-11-8-4.aspx

[12-12-2023].

iii.InDecember2023,Malaysiaannouncedavisaliberalisationplantoattractforeigntouristsandgeneratenationalincome.AmongthemeasuresmentionedarethevisawaiverforChineseandIndiannationals,effective1December2023to31December2024,andtheextensionofthevisavalidityperiodfromthreetosixmonths.Formoreinformationpleaseconsult:

ImmigrationDepartmentofMalaysia–MinistryofHomeAffairs(2023),‘VisaLiberationPlan’,GovernmentofMalaysia,Putrajaya,onlineavailableat:

.my/index.php/en/pengumuman/visa-liberalisation-plan/

[20-12-2023].

iv.KenyaintroducedasofJanuary2024anelectronictravelauthorization.Formoreinformationpleaseconsult:

MinistryofInteriorandCoordinationofNationalGovernment–StateDepartmentforImmigrationServices(2024),‘ImplementationofElecronicTravelAuthorization(eTA)’,onlineavailableat:

https://immigration.go.ke/

[10-01-2024].

2In2012,eVisaswererecordedseparatelyforthefirsttime.

3TheTourismVisaOpennessIndexscoresrangefrom0to100.Thehigherthescoreoftheopennessindex,themorevisasarefacilitated.Openness

indicatestowhatextentadestinationisfacilitatingtourism.Itiscalculatedbysummingthepercentageoftheworldpopulationexemptfromobtainingavisawiththepercentagesofnovisaweightedby1,visaonarrivalweightedby0.7,eVisaby0.5andtraditionalvisaweightedby0.

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•15ofthe20mostopendestinationsareSmallIslandDevelopingStates.

•Visaexemptionsaremostcommoninthe

Caribbean(45%)andinCentralAmerica(31%).

•VisaonarrivalpoliciesarecomparativelycommoninEastAfrica(46%),SouthAsia(38%),South-EastAsia(36%)andWestAfrica(32%).

•Thepercentageofreciprocalvisapolicies

hasdecreasedfrom71%in2008to42%in

2023.

•eVisaprogrammesareprevalentinWestandEastAfrica(36%)andSouthAsia(31%),whileNorthAfrica,CentralAmerica,NorthernandWesternEuropedonotoffereVisas.

•ProgressinvisafacilitationisobservedintheMiddleEast,wherethepercentageofworldpopulationrequiringatraditionalvisafellfrom71%in2015to57%in2023.OverthesameperiodoftimetheprovisionofeVisarosefrom10%in2015to15%in2023,andvisaonarrivalfrom17%to24%.

•ReciprocalvisaexemptionamongmembersoftheGulfCooperationCouncil(GCC)hasincreasedfrom2%in2018to87%in2023.

•Non-reciprocalpolicieshavedoubledfrom2008to2023,from29%to58%.

•Advancedeconomiesshowahigherdegreeofreciprocalopenness(81%)comparedtoemergingeconomies(39%).

•ThehighestlevelsofopenreciprocitywithintheeconomicandpoliticalblocssurveyedarefoundintheSchengenareaandtheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates.

•Emergingeconomieshaveseenadecreaseinreciprocityamongthemselvesfrom54%in2013to39%in2023..

•Traditionalvisarequirementsaremost

prevalentinNorthAmerica(84%),NorthAfrica

(79%),followedbytheWesternandNorthern

EuropeansubregionsandNorthEastAsia,all

withratesabove70%.

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Introduction

TheWorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO)hasbeenmonitoringtheevolutionofvisapoliciessince1963.Since2008,datahasbeencollectedonaregularbasisandconsequentlyvalidatedthroughsurveysandcommunicationwithmemberstates.Regularreportshavebeenpublishedsince2013andareavailableontheUNWTOwebsite.4ThesereportsincludetheTourismVisaOpennessIndexthatmeasuresthedegreetowhichdestinationsfacilitatetourismandhowopenacountryisintermsofvisafacilitationfortourismpurposes.Also,mobilityscoresareincludedthatindicatetowhatextentcitizensaroundtheworldaresubjecttovisapolicies,aswellasanin-depthanalysisofthereciprocityofvisapolicies.

DuringtheCOVID-19pandemic,whenCOVID-19-relatedtravelrestrictionsbecamesignificantlymoreimportantforinternationaltravel,andinlightoftheunprecedentedchallengesthepandemicposedtothetourismsector,UNWTOsupportedthesectorwithmonitoringandreportingonCOVID-19-relatedtravelrestrictions.Overthecourseofthisunparalleledperiodfortourism,theSecretariatpublishedatotaloftwelveglobalreports,includinganalysisofthecomplexinterplayofsustainability,healthandtourism-relatedfactorsthatinfluencedtheadoptionofthevarioustravelrestrictionmeasures.5

UNWTO’sTourismVisaOpennessReport2023continuesthepreviousanalysisofvisapolicies

andaimstoprovidedestinationswithevidence-

basedinsightstohelpprioritizerelatedfacilitationmeasures.

Visapoliciesareamongthemostimportantgovernmentformalitiesaffectinginternationaltourism.Onlyhalfacenturyago,travelwasheavilyinfluencedbycustomsregulations,currencyexchangelimitationsandvisaformalities.Thedevelopmentofpoliciesandproceduresforvisas,aswellasforotherkeytraveldocumentssuchaspassports,iscloselylinkedtothedevelopmentoftourism.Withtherapidgrowthofinternationaltourisminrecentdecades,thequality,reliabilityandfunctionalityofvisasandothertraveldocumentshaveevolved.

Muchprogresshasbeenmadeintravelfacilitation,whichhascontributedtothegrowthofthetourismsector.Particularlynoteworthyaretheregionalagreementsbetweenselectedeconomicandpoliticalblocsthatmutuallyexemptallorcertaincategoriesoftravellersfromvisarequirements.

Furthermore,inresponsetotheimpactoftheglobaltravelrestrictionscausedbythepandemic,manycountrieshavecreatedspecialvisas,suchasthedigitalnomadvisa6.Suchvisaaimedtoattractlong-termvisitorsduringthepandemic,supportrecoveryandattractaspecifichightechnologicalprofileoftalenttotheircountries.7

4WorldTourismOrganization(n.d.),‘TravelFacilitation’,UNWTO,Madrid,onlineavailableat:at:

/sustainable-development/travel

-

facilitation

[30-10-2023].

5WorldTourismOrganization(2020–2023),COVID-19-relatedTravelRestrictions–AGlobalReviewforTourism,twelvereports,UNWTO,Madrid,onlineavailableat:

/covid-19-travel-restrictions

[30-10-2023].

6WorldTourismOrganization(2023),UNWTOBrief–DigitalNomadVisas,UNWTO,Madrid,DOI:

/10.18111/9789284424481

.7FormoreinformationonDigitalNomadVisaseeBox1.

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However,despitetheprogressmade,currentvisapoliciesarestillofteninadequate,inefficient,andanunnecessaryburdenforinternationaltravellers.

Visasperformseveralfunctions.Theyareusedtoensuresecurity,tocontrolimmigrationandlimittheentry,durationofstayoractivitiesoftravellers,togeneraterevenueandapplymeasuresofreciprocity,andtoensurethatadestination’scarryingcapacityisnotexceededandthiswaytocontroltourismdemand.Althoughsecurityiscommonlycitedasthemostimportantreasonforhavingavisarequirementinplace,inpracticeallthefunctionsmentionedcanbeobservedandarereasonsforintroducingormaintainingavisa.

Travellersseevisasmainlyasaformalitywithcosts.Ifthecostofobtainingavisa–eitherthedirectmonetarycostimposedintheformoffeesortheindirectcosts,whichmayincludedistance,timespentwaitinginlinesandthecomplexityoftheprocess–exceedsacertainthreshold,potentialtravellersmaybedeterredfrommakingaparticularjourneyormaychooseanalternativedestinationthatiseasieraccessible.

Itisnoteworthythatin1963,attheUnitedNationsConferenceonInternationalTravelandTourisminRome,delegatesfrom87Statesagreedthat“Governmentsshouldextendtothemaximumnumberofcountriesthepracticeofabolishing,throughbilateralagreementsorbyunilateraldecision,therequirementofentryvisasfortemporaryvisitors”8.Overthecourse

ofsixdecadessincethisconference,significant

progresshasbeenmade,yetitstillfallsshort

oftherealpotentialtocreateaseamlesstravel

experienceforvisitors.

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8UnitedNationsConferenceonInternationalTravelandTourism(1964),RecommendationsonInternationalTravelandTourism,August21–September5,1963,Rome.

Statesrepresentedattheconferencewere:Afghanistan,Algeria,Argentina,Australia,Austria,Belgium,Bolivia,Brazil,Bulgaria,ByelorussianSoviet

SocialistRepublic(nowBelarus),Cambodia,Cameroon,Canada,Ceylon(nowSriLanka),Chad,Chile,China,Colombia,theCongo(Leopold-Ville),CostaRica,Cuba,Cyprus,Czechoslovakia(nowCzechiaandSlovakia),Denmark,DominicanRepublic,ElSalvador,FederalRepublicofGermany,Finland,

France,Greece,Guatemala,HolySee,Hungary,India,Indonesia,Iran,Iraq,Ireland,Israel,Italy,Japan,Jordan,Kuwait,Lebanon,Liberia,Libya,Luxembourg,Madagascar,Mali,Mexico,Morocco,Nepal,theNetherlands,NewZealand,Niger,Nigeria,Norway,Pakistan,Paraguay,Peru,thePhilippines,Poland,

Portugal,theRepublicofKorea,Romania,SanMarino,SaudiArabia,Senegal,Somalia,RepublicofSouthAfrica,Spain,Sudan,Sweden,Switzerland,Syria,Thailand,TrinidadandTobago,Tunisia,Turkey(nowTürkiye),Uganda,UkrainianSovietSocialistRepublic(nowUkraine),UnionofSovietSocialistRepublics(nowRussianFederation),UnitedArabRepublic(nowEgyptandSyria),UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland,UnitedStatesofAmerica,

VenezuelaandYugoslavia(nowBosniaandHerzegovina,Croatia,NorthMacedonia,Montenegro,SerbiaandSlovenia).UNspecializedagencies:FAO,UNESCO,ICAO,WHO,IMCO.

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Methodologicalnote

whichdetailborderformalitiesastheywerereportedbymemberstatesatthattime.Thisdataprovidesavaluablebaselineforunderstandingtheevolutionofinternationaltravelregulationsandvisarequirementsoveranextendedperiod,offeringauniqueperspectiveonhowtravelfacilitationandbordermanagementhavechangedinthepastfourdecades.

ThereportfurtherhighlightssomeofthekeyfindingsoftheUNWTOBriefonDigitalNomadVisaspublishedinNovember2023.10

Forthe2023report,datawascollectedbetween

JanuaryandMay2023.Theprocessincluded

acomprehensivereviewofofficialdestination

websitesfromJanuarytoApril2023,verification

ofinformationwithsecondarypublicsourcesand

adetailedformalconsultationprocessonthe

findingswithallnational(tourism)authoritiesin

May2023.

Forthepurposeofthereport,onlymeasures

applicabletotemporaryvisitors(tourists)holding

ordinarypassports9wereconsidered.The

reportdistinguishesbetweenthefollowingfour

categoriesofvisapoliciesareconsidered:

•Traditionalvisa:alltraditionalpapervisasaffixedinthepassportandallothertypesofnon-electronicvisasthatmustbeobtainedbeforedeparture;

•eVisa:alltypesofelectronicentryandtravelauthorizationthatthetravellermustobtainpriortodeparture;

•Visaonarrival:allvisasacquireduponarrivalatthedestinationwithoutanypriorpreparationforthejourney.Typically,thistypeofvisaisissuedintheformofastamp,stickerorothervisibleendorsementinthepassport;and

•Novisa:noentrypermitisrequiredwhenenteringthedestination.

Additionally,historicaldatafromtheyear1980

weregatheredfromtheUNWTOarchiverecords,

9Excludingdiplomaticpassportsorsimilar.

10WorldTourismOrganization(2023),UNWTOBrief–DigitalNomadVisas,UNWTO,Madrid,DOI:

/10.18111/9789284424481

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1.COVID-19-relatedtravelrestrictions2020–2023

TheCOVID-19pandemichashadaprofoundimpactoninternationaltourism,negativelyaffectingdestinations,hostcommunitiesandtourism-dependentsectors.AshighlightedinthetwelveUNWTOCOVID-19-relatedTravelRestrictionsReports,11travelrestrictionsevolvedrapidlyanddiverselyduringthepandemic,overshadowingtheimpactofexistingvisapoliciesonthemovementoftravellers.ApeakintravelrestrictionswasobservedinMay2020,when75%ofalldestinationsworldwidehadtheirborderscompletelyclosed,effectivelyhaltinginternationaltourismandcontributingtoanunprecedented72%dropininternationaltouristarrivals(ITAs)in2020.12Gradually,withabetterunderstandingofthevirusanditsvariants,combinedwithglobalvaccinerollouts,governmentsbeganadoptingamorerisk-basedapproach,leadingtothegradualeasingandliftingoftravelrestrictions.

Theliftingoftravelrestrictionsoccurredthrough

variousmechanisms,leadingtosubstantial

geographicaldifferencesintherecoveryofthe

tourismsector.DestinationsinEuropeandthe

Americasgenerallyledthewayineasingtravel

restrictionsandexperiencedthestrongest

tourismrecoverycomparedtootherregions.

However,uncertaintyremainedamajorchallenge

forinternationaltravellersduringthepandemic,as

didfrequentchangesandadjustmentstotravel

restrictionsatshortnotice,lackofcommunication

ofrestrictionsongovernmentandtourism-

relatedwebsitesandadditionalfinancialcosts

duetotestingandquarantinerequirements.The

recommendationoftheEmergencyCommitteeof

theWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)toendthe

PublicHealthEmergencyofInternationalConcern

(PHEIC)forCOVID-19on4May2023markeda

significantmilestoneoftheglobalefforttocontrol

thepandemic.

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11WorldTourismOrganization(2020–2023),COVID-19-relatedTravelRestrictions–AGlobalReviewforTourism,twelvereports,UNWTO,Madrid,onlineavailableat:

/covid-19-travel-restrictions

[30-10-2023].

12WorldTourismOrganization(2023),InternationalTourismHighlights,2023Edition–TheimpactofCOVID-19ontourism(2020–2022),UNWTO,Madrid,DOI:

/10.18111/9789284424504

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ThefindingsfromthetwelveCOVID-19-relatedTravelRestrictionsReportsunderlinethatdestinationsrespondedtothepandemicinhighlydiverseanddynamicways.Thosewithbetterenvironmentalperformance,higherhealthandhygienestandardsandagreaterrelianceontourismtendedtolifttravelrestrictionsearlier.Conversely,emergingeconomiesandSmallIslandDevelopingStatesoftenimposedfullborderclosuresmorequickly,maintainedthemforlongerandintroducedadditionaltravellerrequirementsasCOVID-19responsemeasures.TheEuropeanUnion(EU)establishedtheEUDigitalCOVIDCertificate,whichcoveredCOVID-19vaccination,testandrecovery.Withmorethan2.3billioncertificatesissueditsignificantlyenabledthetourismrecoveryintheEuropeanUnionandbeyond.13

Consequently,theCOVID-19pandemicunderscoredtheimportanceoffacilitatedtravelandhighlightedthenecessityofanevidence-basedapproachtoachieveobjectiveswiththosemeasuresandtomakecorrectionsasneeded.Theintricateinterplaybetweentheenvironment,healthandtourismsectorsnecessitatesamultifaceted,evidence-basedapproachthatincorporatesaspectsofgovernance,health,environmentandculture.Thiswillbecrucialinaddressingfuturechallengesandbuildingamoreresilientandsustainabletourismsector.

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13EuropeanCommission(2023),‘TheEUDigitalCOVIDCertificate’,EuropeanCommission,Brussels,onlineavailableat:

https://commission.europa.eu/

strategy-and-policy/coronavirus-response/safe-covid-19-vaccines-europeans/eu-digital-covid-certificate_en

[30-10-2023].

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2.Theroleofvisas

Themanagementofstateborders,includingtheregulationofpeople’sentry,isasovereignright,governedbyspecificallyenactedpolicies.AlthoughtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsarticulatesinArticle13therighttofreedomofmovementwithinandtherighttoleaveandreturntoone’scountry,itdoesnotconferthisrightwithregardtoenteringforeignstates.Consequently,statesmaintaintheauthoritytoregulatetheadmissionofforeignnationalsintotheirterritories.14

Visasserveastheprincipalmechanismthroughwhichstatesexertthiscontrol.Theseregulationscanbeunilaterallydeterminedorestablishedthroughbilateralormultilateralagreementswithotherstates.Thus,visapoliciesareamongthemostimpactfulgovernmentalmeasuresaffectinginternationaltourismandinfluencinginboundtourism.Atthesametime,therapidexpansionofinternationaltourisminthepastsevendecadesandthelinktovisapolicieshasemphasizedtheneedforimprovedquality,reliabilityandfunctionalityofvisasandothertraveldocuments.

Visasserveseveralcriticalfunctions,suchasensuringsecurity,controllingimmigration,generatingrevenue,applyingreciprocitymeasuresandmanagingadestination’scarryingcapacitytocontroltourismdemand.Whilesecurityisoftencitedastheprimaryreasonforimposingvisarequirements,theotherfunctionsareequally

operativeandformthebasisfortheintroductionormaintenanceofvisas.

Fromthetraveller’sperspective,visasareoftenseenascostlyandburdensomeformalities.Iftheexpenseofacquiringavisa–beitthedirectcostinfeesortheindirectcostsassociatedwithdistance,timeandproceduralcomplexity–exceedsacertainthreshold,potentialtravellersmaybedeterredfromvisitingormayoptfordestinationswithmoreaccessibleentryprocesses.

Whilehistoricallytravelwasprofoundlyaffectedbyawiderangeofmeasuressuchascustomsregulationsandcurrencyexchangelimitations,inrecenttimes,oneofthekeyadvancementscontributingtotheremarkablegrowthofthetourismsectorhasbeenthefacilitationofvisaprocessesinmanycountries.Thesignificanceofvisapoliciesfortourismhasbeenrecognizedfordecadesasevidencedattheabove-mentionedUnitedNationsConferenceonInternationalTravelandTourisminRomein1963.Itwasthenthatdelegatesfrom87statesagreedthatgovernmentsshouldextensivelyeliminatevisarequirements,eitherthroughbilateralpactsorunilateraldecisions,toimprovetravelaccessibility.

Furthermore,theConferenceonSecurityandCooperationinEurope(CSCE),heldinHelsinkiin1975andfromwhichresultedtheOrganizationofSecurityandCooperation(OSCE),aimedto

14ThiswasalsoconfirmedintheWorldTourismOrganizationDeclarationontheFacilitationofTouristTravel,adoptedattheeighteenthsessionofthe

UNWTOGeneralAssemblyinJune2009,inwhichtheGeneralAssemblyreaffirmsthesovereignrightofStatestocontroltheaccessofforeignnationalstotheirterritories,notablybymeansofvisapolicies,whichtheyhavetheauthoritytodeterminefreely,unilaterally,orincooperationwithotherStates

andrecognizesthediscretionaryauthorityofStatesinthisregard,yetitconsidersthatimprovingvisaissuancemodalitiescouldhelpfacilitatetouristtravelsignificantly.Seeformoreinformation:WorldTourismOrganization(2009),‘DeclarationontheFacilitationofTouristTravel,EighteenthsessionoftheWorldTourismGeneralAssembly,Astana,Kazakhstan,5–8October2009’,UNWTO,Madrid,onlineavailableat:

/toc/

unwtogad/2009/1

[14/12/2023].

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overcometheColdWarriv