2024年亚太贸易便利化报告

ASIA–PACIFICTRADEFACILITATIONREPORT2024PROMOTINGSUSTAINABILITYANDRESILIENCEINGLOBALVALUECHAINS

APRIL2024

ASIA–PACIFICTRADEFACILITATIONREPORT2024PROMOTINGSUSTAINABILITYANDRESILIENCEINGLOBALVALUECHAINS

APRIL2024

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Notes:

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Contents

iii

Tables,Figures,andBoxes

v

ForewordByArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbana,ESCAPviii

ForewordByYingmingYang,ADBix

Acknowledgmentsx

Abbreviationsxi

Highlightsxii

DIGITALANDSUSTAINABLETRADEFACILITATION1

1TradeCostsandTradeFacilitationinAsiaandthePacific:StateofPlay2

1.1|TradeCosts:SubregionalTrends2

1.2|ImplementationofDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationMeasures3

2ImpactofTradeFacilitationonTrade16

2.1|GravityModelofTradeandData16

2.2|EmpiricalResults18

2.3|ImpactofTradeFacilitationonTradeCosts20

3ConclusionandWayForward23

References26

THEMECHAPTER:PROMOTINGSUSTAINABILITYANDRESILIENCE27

INGLOBALVALUECHAINS

1Introduction28

2Background31

2.1|GVCTradeandParticipationinAsiaandthePacific31

2.2|TrackingTradeFacilitationinAsiaandthePacific32

ivContents

2.3|TradeFacilitation–GVCNexus35

3SustainabilityinGVCs38

3.1|Background:CarbonEmissionsEmbodiedinTrade38

3.2|FactorsAffectingGVCSustainability42

4ResilienceinGVCs45

4.1|Background:RecentSupplyChainPressuresandDisruptions45

4.2|FactorsAffectingGVCResilience46

5TradeFacilitationforSustainabilityandResilienceinGVCs50

5.1|FrameworkonGVCSustainabilityandResilienceandTradeFacilitation50

5.2|GVCSustainabilityandResilience-AdjustedTradeFacilitationImplementation56

6ConclusionsandPolicyImplications58

Appendix63

References69

Tables,Figures,andBoxes

v

DIGITALANDSUSTAINABLETRADEFACILITATION

TABLES

1

Intra-andExtra-RegionalComprehensiveTradeCosts,2016–2021

2

GroupingofTradeFacilitationMeasuresandCorrespondencewithTradeFacilitation

AgreementArticles

3MostandLeastImplementedMeasuresinAsiaandthePacific

4DataSource,Definition,Treatment,Source,andExpectedSign

5GravityModelofTradeResults

6ChangesinInternationalTradeCostsofAsiaandthePacificasaResultofAlternativeTrade

FacilitationReforms

7ChangesinTradeCostsofAsiaandthePacificfromBetterPortConnectivity

FIGURES

1

OverallImplementationofTradeFacilitationMeasuresin47AsiaandPacificCountries

2AverageTradeFacilitationImplementationRatesinAsiaandPacificSubregions

andCountrieswithSpecialNeeds

3ImplementationofSubgroupsofTradeFacilitationMeasures,AsiaandPacificRegionalAverage4ImplementationofDigitalandSustainableDimensionsofTradeFacilitation

5TradeFacilitationImplementationbySubregionsinAsiaandthePacific,

2019,2021,and2023

6AverageImplementationofDifferentSubgroupsofTradeFacilitationMeasures

inAsiaandthePacific,2019,2021,and2023

7MovingUptheTradeFacilitationLaddertowardSeamlessInternationalSupplyChains

2

4

10

17

18

21

22

7

8

9

13

14

15

24

viTables,Figures,andBoxes

BOXES

1FrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePacific:AnUpdate

2TradeDigitalizationIndex:ANovelMeasureAssessingGlobalProgressinDigitalizingTradeProcedures

6

12

THEMECHAPTER:PROMOTINGSUSTAINABILITYANDRESILIENCEINGLOBALVALUECHAINS

TABLES

1PotentialTradeFacilitationImpactonGlobalValueChainStages

2FactorsAffectingGVCResilienceandRelevancetoTradeFacilitation

FIGURES

1Top-10MajorSourcesofSupplyChainDisruptionbeforeandafterCOVID-19

2TotalTradeandGVCTrade,2020-2022

3GVCParticipation,Asia

4GlobalValueChainParticipationbyMerchandiseSector,2022

5AverageTradeFacilitationPerformance,byAsiaandPacificSubregion,2017–2022

6AverageTradeFacilitationPillarPerformance,byAsiaandPacificSubregion

7CorrelationbetweenTradeFacilitationPerformanceandGVCParticipation,World,2022

8TrendofCarbonDioxideEmissions,Productionvs.Trade

9Asia’sCarbonDioxideEmissionsEmbodiedinExports,2018

10AverageCarbonDioxideIntensitybyTypeofTrade,Asia,2010–2018

11CarbonDioxideEmissionsfromFreightActivitybyTransportMode,2020

12FreightActivitybyTransportMode,2020

13CarbonEmissionsIntensitybyTransportMode

14GlobalSupplyChainPressureIndexandRelatedIndicatorsduringthePandemic,2019–2022

36

53

30

31

33

33

34

35

37

39

39

40

41

41

41

46

Tables,Figures,andBoxesvii

15FrameworkofSupplyChainVisibility

16BarriersFinancialInstitutionsFaceinServicingTradeFinance

17BarrierstoDigitalizingBanks’BusinessandTradePortfolio

18FactorsAffectingGVCResilienceandSustainability,andTradeFacilitation-RelatedFactors

19NumberofEnvironment-RelatedNotificationsbyWTOAgreement,2009–2022

20LevelofTradeFacilitationImplementationwithAdjustmentforSustainabilityandResilienceinGlobalValueChains

47

49

49

51

52

57

BOXES

1GoogleSearchResultsfor“SupplyChainResilience”,“SupplyChainSustainability”,29

and“TradeFacilitation”

2TradeFacilitationandEnvironmentalSustainability55

3ScopeofGreenTradeFacilitation61

viii

Foreword

ByArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbana,ESCAP

valuechains.Sucheffortsarecrucialforharnessingtradeasapivotalcatalystforbotheconomicgrowthandsustainabledevelopment.Geopoliticalconflictsdisruptingglobalsupplychainsandheightenedinflationcontributingtoincreasedtradecostscontinuetoimpedeinternationaltrade.Recognizingthesechallenges,itisclearthattradefacilitationplaysakeyroleinadvancingsustainabledevelopmentbyfosteringmoreefficientandtransparenttradeprocedures,enhancingtheresilienceofglobalsupplychains,andreducingoveralltradecosts.

Reducingtradecostsisimperativetoensuretheactiveengagementofeconomiesinregionalandglobal

TheAsia-PacificTradeFacilitationReport2024underscorestheunwaveringcommitmentofcountriesintheregiontocultivateaseamlessandefficienttradingenvironment,despitethesechallenges.Thiscommitmentisevidencedbytheirconcertedeffortstosimplifyanddigitalizeformalitiesininternationaltrade,ashighlightedinthe2023UNGlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation.

Thereportshowcasestheprogressiveeffortsmadebycountriesintheregionindigitalizingtheirtradeprocedures,althoughthereisstillroomforimprovement.Thepotentialbenefitsofadvancingcross-borderpaperlesstradeareclear;reversingthetrendofescalatingtradecoststhroughenhancedefficiencyachievedbystreamlinedanddigitalprocesses.Thereportalsoindicatesthatfurtheraccelerationofdigitaltradefacilitationimplementationcouldcutaveragetradecostsintheregionbyapproximately11%.Moreover,theFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePacific,aUnitedNationstreatythatenteredintoforceinearly2021andcurrentlyhas13Partiesfromtheregion,playsapivotalrole.Asadedicated,inclusive,andcapacity-buildingintergovernmentalplatform,thetreatycansupportcountriesintheregioninadvancingtradedigitalization.

Furthermore,thereportshedslightonthecommendableprogressmadebycountriesinAsiaandthePacificinimplementingsustainabletradefacilitationmeasures,particularlyinitiativessupportingwomenintradefacilitation.However,whiletheadoptionofthesemeasuresispromising,itlagsbehindtheimplementationofgeneralmeasuresincludedintheWorldTradeOrganizationTradeFacilitationAgreement.Furtheradvancementsareessentialtoextendsupporttosmallandmedium-sizedenterprises,womentradersandtheagriculturalsector,ensuringinclusiveandsustainabletradebecomesatangiblereality.

Ihopethisreportwillfosteraforward-lookingperspectiveontradefacilitationamongcountriesanddevelopmentpartners,bolsterevidence-basedpublicpolicies,strengthentheexchangeofgoodpractices,andidentifyemergingneedsforcapacity-buildingandtechnicalassistance.SuchcollaborativeendeavorscansupportcountriesinAsiaandthePacifictowardinclusiveandsustainabletrade.

ArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbana

Under-Secretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationsandExecutiveSecretary

UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific

ix

Foreword

ByYingmingYang,ADB

T

uncertaintylingersduetoinward-lookingtradepolicies,geopoliticalconflicts,andintensifyingclimatechange.

Thesefactorshaveimportantimplicationsfortradeandglobalvaluechains(GVCs)inAsiaandthePacific.GVCsinmanysectorsarehighlycomplex,involvingmanysuppliersacrossnumerouscountries.Thissystemhasenabledfirmstoreducecosts,achievescaleeconomies,andbenefitconsumersglobally.Ithasalsofacilitatedparticipationintradeandunderpinnedproductivitygrowthinmanyeconomiesintheregion.

Whilegreenhousegasemissionsfromproductionhavegrownintheregion,partlyreflectingfasteconomicgrowthandtheregion’sindustrialstructurerelyingmoreonmanufacturing,emissionsfromtradehaveincreasedevenfasterduetoexpandingglobalandregionalproductionnetworks.Atthesametime,theregionisbecomingincreasinglyexposedtoadverseimpactsofclimatechange.Extremeweathereventsarelikelytoincrease,whichmaydisruptsupplychains,whileenvironmentalregulationsmayimposecompliancecostsontopofexistingtradecosts.

TheAsia-PacificTradeFacilitationReport2024highlightstheincreasinglyimportantroleoftradefacilitationinensuringmoreresilientandgreensupplychains.TradefacilitationcanboostGVCsustainabilityandresiliencethroughimprovedcustomsprocedures,enhancedcross-borderdatasharing,andincreasedtransparency.Thishelpsidentifybottlenecks,reducesborderwaittimes,andsupportssustainablesourcing.Italsofostersinternationalpartnerships,enhanceslogisticsandsupplyagility,andaidssmallandmedium-sizedenterprises.Technologyplaysakeyroleinriskmanagementandensuringsmoothsupplychainoperations.Additionally,harmonizingstandardsandeasieraccesstotradefinancebolstersfinancialstabilityinGVCs.

Thereportemphasizesthatdigitalizationintradecanbeeffectiveinenhancingglobalsupplychainresilienceandsustainability.Digitalization,transportfacilitation,andcross-borderpaperlesstradeareessentialinreducingtradecostsandreapingthebenefitsofGVCs.Despitehighimplementationratesinvarioustradefacilitationreforms,progressinpaperlesstradehasbeenslow.Thishighlightstheneedforregion-wideinitiatives,includingtheFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePacific,andsimilaragreements.

Iamconfidentthatthisreportwillbroadenunderstandingofthechallengeswefacetoensuregreenerandmoreresilientglobalsupplychainsandtrade,andtheactionsneededtopromotetradefacilitationtoachievethesegoals.

YingmingYang

Vice-President(South,CentralandWestAsia)

AsianDevelopmentBank

x

Acknowledgments

T

theTrade,InvestmentandInnovationDivision(TIID)oftheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific(ESCAP).TheoverallproductionofthepublicationwassupportedbyADB’sTechnicalAssistanceSupportFund6668:SupportforForward-LookingTradeFacilitationMeasuresinAsiaandthePacific.

JongWooKang,directorofERCI,ADBandYannDuval,chiefoftheTradePolicyandFacilitationSectionatTIID,ESCAPledthepreparationofthispublication.

ThechapteronDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationwasprovidedbyESCAP.ThecontributingauthorsincludeChorthipUtoktham,SilvèreDernouh,MatthieuLevasseur,andSooHyunKim,whoprovidedtheanalysisofnewdataforcountriesinAsiaandthePacific,collectedaspartoftheUnitedNationsGlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation2023.TheauthorsaregratefultoJieWeifromtheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEuropeforsupportingdatacollectioninCentralAsiancountries.

ThethemechapteronPromotingSustainabilityandResilienceinGlobalValueChainswasprovidedbyADB.ContributingauthorsincludeKijinKim,BenjaminEndriga,andZemmaArdaniel.AbackgroundpaperwasprovidedbyBenShepherd.ThepublicationbenefitedfromcommentsandsuggestionsprovidedbyADB’sregionaldepartmentsandtheClimateChangeandSustainableDevelopmentDepartment.

KijinKimcoordinatedoverallproductionassistedbyAleliRosario.EricVanZanteditedthemanuscript.

EricMercadocreatedthecoverdesign.JosephManglicmotdidthelayoutandtypesetting.TuesdaySorianoproofreadthematerialwithassistancefromZemmaArdaniel,CarolOngchangco,andAleliRosario.SupportforprintingandpublishingthisreportwasprovidedbythePrintingServicesUnitofADB’sCorporateServicesDepartmentandbythePublishingteamoftheDepartmentofCommunicationsandKnowledgeManagement.

Abbreviations

xi

ADB

AsianDevelopmentBank

ASEAN

AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations

ASYCUDA

AutomatedSystemforCustomsData

CAREC

CentralAsiaRegionalEconomicCooperation

CO2

carbondioxide

COVID-19

coronavirusdisease

DSTF

DigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation

ESCAP

EconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific

ESG

environmental,social,andgovernance

EV

electricvehicle

FTA

freetradeagreement

GHG

greenhousegas

GVC

globalvaluechain

LDC

leastdevelopedcountry

LLDC

landlockeddevelopingcountry

OECD

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

PRC

People’sRepublicofChina

SIDS

smallislanddevelopingstates

SMEs

smallandmedium-sizedenterprises

TFA

TradeFacilitationAgreement

TFI

tradefacilitationindicator

WTO

WorldTradeOrganization

xii

Highlights

•|DigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation

Tradecostsareontheriseandvolatileduetoglobalsupplychaindisruption,buttradefacilitationimplementationcouldmitigatethesechallenges.Geopoliticalconflictshavecausedfurtherdisruptiontoglobalsupplychains,andhighinflationiscontributingtoincreasedtradecostsanduncertainty.ThishasputadditionalpressureonalreadyhightradecostsinAsiaandthePacific.AccordingtothelatestdatafromtheUnitedNations(UN)EconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific(ESCAP)–WorldBankTradeCostDatabase,SouthAsiahasthehighestintraregionaltradecostsinAsiaandthePacific.Ontheotherhand,EastAsiahasthelowestintraregionaltradecostsamongallAsiaandPacificsubregions,followedbytheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)subregion.TheRussianFederationandCentralAsia,aswellasthePacific,alsohavehighintra-andextra-regionaltradecosts.

The2023UNGlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitationshowscontinuedprogressinstreamlininganddigitalizingtradeprocessesinAsiaandthePacific.TheUNGlobalSurveyrevealsthattheregionalaverageimplementationratefor31“general”and“digital”tradefacilitationmeasuresstandsat67%in2023.Basedon46commoncountries,anincreaseof3percentagepointswasobservedin2023,comparedwith2021.However,implementationratesvarygreatlybetweensubregionsintheregion.AustraliaandNewZealandshowedthehighestimplementationrates(97%)followedbyEastAsia(83%),SoutheastAsia(76%),andtheRussianFederationandCentralAsia(74%).Particularly,noteworthyprogressisobservedintheRussianFederationandCentralAsia,withan8percentagepointsincreasebetween2021and2023.Ontheotherhand,somesubregionsarestillcatchingup,withSouthAsia,Iran,andTürkiye(65%)andthePacific(42%)subregionsshowingthetwolowestsubregionalimplementationrates.

BuildingonmeasuresoutlinedintheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)TradeFacilitationAgreement(TFA),countriesinAsiaandthePacificwouldbenefitgreatlyfromtradedigitalization.The2023UNGlobalSurveyindicatesthattheWTOTFArelatedmeasuresaregenerallywell-implementedintheregion,withimplementationratestypicallyexceeding75%.Ontheotherhand,despitecontinualadvancementinestablishingandenhancingtheirnationalpaperlesssystemsforexchangingtrade-relateddataanddocuments,countriesintheregioncontinuetofacechallengesimplementingcross-borderpaperlesstradeasshownbytheaverageimplementationrateofonly42%.TheimplementationofdigitaltradefacilitationmeasuresbeyondthecommitmentsstipulatedintheWTOTFAcouldyieldareductionofapproximately11%intradecosts.Toexpediteprogress,collaborativeeffortsareimperativeamongregionalstakeholderstoestablisharegulatoryframeworkandtechnicalprotocolsconducivetotheseamlesselectronicexchangeoftrade-relateddataanddocumentsacrossbordersandthroughouttheinternationalsupplychain.TheFrameworkAgreementonFacilitationofCross-BorderPaperlessTradeinAsiaandthePacificcanserveasadedicated,inclusive,andcapacity-buildingintergovernmentalplatformtosupportcountriestowardrealizingtradedigitalizationobjectivesintheAsiaandPacificregion.

Highlightsxiii

Tradefacilitationstrategiesshouldbeformulatedmorecomprehensivelyandinclusively,recognizingthepivotalroleofgroupswithspecialneedsinfosteringsustainableandinclusivedevelopment.Despitemodestprogress,theimplementationofsustainabletradefacilitationmeasures,particularlythosetailoredforsmallandmedium-sizedenterprises(SMEs)andwomen,remainslow,withaverageimplementationratesof43%and42%,respectively.Conversely,theimplementationofagriculturaltradefacilitationhasarelativelyhigherimplementationrateof62%.EmbracingandfurtherdevelopingmeasurestailoredtosupportSMEsandwomenisessential,fosteringinclusiveandsustainabletradefacilitationmechanismsthatcontributetotheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).Additionally,thereportunderscoresastrongpositivecorrelationbetweenthedigitalandsustainabledimensionsoftradefacilitation,suggestingsynergeticopportunitiesthroughconcurrentenhancementsinbothdimensions.

PRC

Japan

Republicof

Mongolia

Korea,

Armenia

Azerbaijan

Georgia

Kazakhstan

KyrgyzRepublic

RussianFederation

Tajikistan

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

Fiji

Kiribati

FSM

Nauru

Palau

PapuaNewGuinea

Samoa

SolomonIslands

T

Tuvalu

Vanuatu

Afghanistan

Bangladesh

Bhutan

India

Iran

Maldives

Nepal

Pakistan

SriLanka

Türkiye

BruneiDarussalam

Cambodia

Indonesia

LaoPDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Timor-Leste

VietNam

Australia

NewZealand

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

OverallImplementationofTradeFacilitationMeasuresin47AsiaandPacificCountries

EastAsia(83%)

RussianFederation

SouthAsia,Iran,

Australia

SoutheastAsia(76%)

andTürkiye(65%)

andCentralAsia

(74%)

andNew

Zealand(97%)

(42%)

Pacific

TransparencyFormalitiesInstitutionalarrangementandcooperationPaperlesstradeCross-borderpaperlesstrade

FSM=FederatedStatesofMicronesia,LaoPDR=LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,PRC=People’sRepublicofChina.Note:Amongthe60measuressurveyedacrosstheUnitedNationsregionalcommissions,threemeasuresincludingelectronicsubmissionofseacargomanifests,alignmentofworkingdaysandhourswithneighboringcountriesatbordercrossings,andalignmentofformalitiesandprocedureswithneighboringcountriesatbordercrossingsareexcludedwhencalculatingtheoverallscoreastheyarenotrelevanttoallcountriessurveyed.Fourtransitfacilitationmeasuresarealsoexcludedforthesamereason.Additionally,sustainabletradefacilitationandothertradefacilitationareexcludedasthesenewlyaddedgroupsofmeasureswerenotincludedintheearliersurveys,forcomparison.

Source:UnitedNations(UN).UNGlobalSurveyonDigitalandSustainableTradeFacilitation.2023Surveyresultsat.

xivHighlights

•|ThemeChapter:PromotingSustainabilityandResilienceinGlobalValueChains

Globalvaluechains–tradefacilitationnexus

AsiaandthePacifichasbeenakeyplayeringlobalvaluechains(GVCs),i.e.,thefragmentationofproductionacrosscountries.Includingactivitiessuchasdesign,production,marketing,distribution,andsupporttothefinalconsumer,GVCsoftenfeaturenarrowlyspecialized—insectors,products,tasks,andactivities—andfrequentmovementofintermediategoodsandservicesacrossbordersduringproduction.Theregion’sGVCtradeclimbedfrom$621billionin2000toabout$3.6trillionin2022,anditsglobalshareofGVCtradefrom24%to30%overthesameperiod.

Theimportance