低滚动阻力轮胎外文文献翻译、中英文翻译

附录附录A：LOWROLLINGRESISTANCETIRESAccordingtothereport,80%ormoreofacar’sfuelenergyiswastedbyfrictionandothersuchlosses.1.5to4.5%oftotalgasolineusecouldbesavedifallreplacementtiresinusehadlowrollingresistance.About237millionreplacementtiresaresoldintheU.S.eachyear–nonehasrollingresistancelabeling.1.America’sFuelUse,ItsImpacts,andOpportunitiesforSavingsTheenvironmentalimpactsofAmerica’sgasolineuseareprofound.Withover160millionpassengercarsandlighttrucksontheroad,weburnabout126billiongallonsofgasolineperyear.Ourfuelusecontinuestoriseabout3%annually,propelledbycontinuedincreasesintotalnumberofvehicles,risingaveragedistancedrivenpercar,andfallingaveragefueleconomy.Today,light-dutyvehicles(cars&lighttrucks)areresponsibleforabout20%ofthenitrogenoxides,27%ofthevolatileorganiccompounds,51%ofthecarbonmonoxide,androughly30%ofallthecarbondioxide(themaingreenhousegas)emittedfromhumanactivitiesnationwide.Risingfuelusealsohasenormousimplicationsforprotectionofwildernessandpubliclands(vulnerabletoincreasedexploration),waterresources(vulnerabletotankerandpipelineaccidents),andnationalsecurity.Sotheopportunitytosavemoneyandimproveenvironmentalqualitythroughfuelusereductionsisclear.Oneofthemostpromisingopportunitiesforfuelsavingsacrosstheentirefleetofexistingvehiclesistoutilizelowrollingresistancetiresinsteadofstandardreplacementmodels.Thischangeimprovestheinherentefficiencyofthevehicle,automaticallysavingfueloverthetypical30,000to50,000milelifetimeofasetoftires.Thisreportexaminestheopportunityforsavinggasolinethroughuseofimprovedtiretechnologyandrecommendsparticulartiremodelsforwhichourinitialtestdatasuggestenvironmentaladvantages.Itsfindingsareapplicabletogovernmentandcorporatefleetmanagersaswellasindividualtirebuyers.2.HowTiresCanReduceFuelConsumptionAccordingtotheNationalAcademyofSciences,about80to88%oftheenergyinavehicle’sgasolinetankiswastedinvariousthermal,frictional,andstandbylossesintheengineandexhaustsystem.Thisleavesonlyabout12to20%ofthepotentialenergyactuallyconvertedtovehiclemotion.Oneofthekeywaystoimprovethatefficiencyistoreducetherollingresistanceofvehicletires.Thisisnotameasureofatire’stractionor“grip”ontheroadsurface,butrathersimplyindicateshoweasilyatirerollsdowntheroad,minimizingtheenergywastedasheatbetweenthetireandtheroad,withinthetiresidewallitself,andbetweenthetireandtherim.DetailedmodelingconductedbytheNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratoryconcludedthata10%reductionintirerollingresistanceshouldyieldfuelsavingsofabout1to2%,dependingondrivingconditionsandvehicletype.AccordingtoresearchfortheCaliforniaEnergyCommission,about1.5to4.5%oftotalgasolineusecouldbesavedifallreplacementtiresinusehadlowrollingresistance.Thistranslatesroughlyintoaveragesavingsofupto30gallonsofgasolinesavingspervehicleperyear,orfrom$2.5to$7.5billionworthofnationalaveragegasolinesavings.AspartoftheireffortstomeetFederalfueleconomystandards,automakersroutinelyspecifylowrollingresistancetiresontheirnewvehicles.Between1980and1994,thelowestrollingresistancetiremodelsavailableachieveda48%reductioninrollingresistance,andhavelikelycontinuedtoimprovethereafter.Theseoriginalequipment(OE)tiremodelsareoccasionallyavailableinthereplacementtiremarket,butoftenonlybyspecialorder.Ingeneral,thetiresmarketedtothereplacementtiremarkettendtoplacegreateremphasisonlongevityandlowprice,andthereforeoftenhavehigherrollingresistancethanOEtires.UnfortunatelybothOEandreplacementtireslackanysortofrollingresistancelabelingcurrently,sofleetmanagersandconsumersthatwishtobuyhighlyenergy-efficienttireswhentheirfirstsetofOEtireswearouthavebeenstymied.Evenwhentiremakersclaimthatparticularreplacementmodelsaremorefuelefficientthanothers,theydonotalwaysuseconsistenttestmethodsorindependentlaboratorydatatobackupthoseclaims.About237millionreplacementtiresaresoldintheU.S.eachyearforcarsandlighttrucks,andnoneofthemprovidesrollingresistancelabeling.In2002,theEnergyFoundationfundedEcosConsultingtoanalyzethetiremarket,selectrepresentativemodelsforrollingresistancetesting,andworkwithGreenSealtorecommendparticularmodelsthatperformwellwhileachievinglowrollingresistance.ThosefindingsarebeingpublishedforthefirsttimeinthisChooseGreenReport.AdditionalbackgroundonEcosConsulting’skeyfindingscanbefoundinaseparatereportpreparedfortheCaliforniaEnergyCommission,availableat/reports/2003-01-31_600-03-001CRVOL2.PDF.3.BalancingTireResistanceandOtherConsiderationsThemanufactureoftires,likeotherindustrialprocesses,involvesmaterialextractionandproduction,aswellasenergyconsumptionandtheemissionofvariouspollutants.Eachofthesemanufacturingstagesimpactstheenvironmentindifferentways.However,tires,likeanumberofotherconsumerproducts,areactuallyresponsibleformoreenvironmentalimpactsintheiruseandultimatedispositionthanintheirmanufacturing.Theysignificantlyimpacttheamountoffuelconsumedbythevehicletowhichtheyareattached,leadingtoglobalwarmingemissionsaswellaslocalandregionalairpollution.Theycreateparticulateairpollutionintheprocessofwearing,andtheycanbeasignificantsolidwasteproblemifnotproperlyrecycled.AnanalysisconductedbyItaliantiremanufacturerPirelli(Figure1)revealedthedominanceoftireuseinoveralllife-cycleenergyconsumption.Fully82%ofthelifecycleenergyuseoccursfromthetire’scontributiontovehiclefueluse,comparedtoroughly18%associatedwithobtainingtherawmaterialsandmanufacturingthetireitself.Thus,atire’srollingresistanceislikelytobealargerfactorinitslife-cycleenvironmentalimpactthanitscomposition,longevity,orultimatefate,thoughthosefactorsmeritconsiderationaswell.Thisreportplacesgreatestsignificanceonthemeasuredrollingresistanceoftires,followedcloselybyconsiderationofthetire’sexpectedlongevityandperformancecharacteristics.Atirewithhighrollingresistancecancauseprofoundenvironmentalimpact,evenifitcapablygripstheroadandlastsfor80,000miles.Bycontrast,averylowrollingresistancetiremaynotbeworthrecommendingifitslifetimeisunusuallyshortortestdataindicatethatitprovidespoortraction.Everytirecurrentlyonthemarketrepresentsabalancebetweenawideassortmentofdesiredperformancecharacteristicsandprice(wesurveyedtiresrangingfrom$25toover$200pertire).Carefulbalancingofthesecharacteristicscanyieldnotonlyahigh-performingtire,butalsoonethatisbetterfortheenvironmentthanotherscurrentlyavailableonthemarket.4.RatingTireRollingResistanceandRelatedFactorsRollingresistancehastraditionallybeenmeasuredthroughanofficialSocietyofAutomotiveEngineers(SAE)testprocedureknownasJ1269.Itmeasurestheforcerequiredtorollatireagainstadynamometeratafixedspeedof50milesperhour.Anewerprocedure,SAEJ2452,promisesimprovedaccuracybyassessingrollingresistanceatavarietyofspeeds,butnoindependentlaboratorycurrentlyhasthecapabilitytoconductsuchtestingin-house.Asaresult,allofourtestingwasconductedatasingleindependentlaboratoryaccordingtoSAEJ1269.Thehighestandlowestrollingresistancetireswetesteddifferedinefficiencyby60%,indicatingthattirechoicecanhaveabiggerimpactonfueleconomythanmostpeoplerealize.Rollingresistancedifferencesof20to30%arenotuncommonamongtiresofanotherwisesimilarsize,type,andlevelofperformance.Thismeansanindividualvehiclecouldsaveupto6%ofitsgasolineuseifitwerefittedwithveryefficienttires,payingforthemodestadditionalcostoflowrollingresistancetiresinapproximatelyayearoffuelsavings.Inotherwords,atypicalcompactcarsuchasaFordFocuscanimproveitsmileagefrom30mpgto32mpgsimplybyusinglowerrollingresistancetires.Foracaraveraging15,000milesperyearthefuelsavingsisabout$50(at$1.50pergallon).Alltireshaveimprintedinformationontheirsidewallsindicatingsize,type,load,andspeedratings,asdescribedinFigure2.Themajorityoftiremodelsemploya“P”designationforpassengervehicleuse,butsomebearthe“LT”designationforusewithlighttrucks.Ingeneral,“P”tiresappeartobegaininginpopularityrelativeto“LT”tiresofagivensize.Inaddition,theU.S.DepartmentofTransportationrequireseachmanufacturertogradeitstiresundertheUniformTireQualityGradingSystem(UTQGS)andestablishratingsforthefollowingcharacteristics:treadwear,traction,andtemperatureresistance.Unfortunately,theultimateresultspublishedforeachtiremodelareless“uniform”thantheyshouldbe.Thegovernmentspecifieshoweachtestshouldbeconductedandpreventsamanufacturerfromclaimingbetterperformancethanmeasured.However,itdoesnotpreventmanufacturersfromclaimingworseperformancethanmeasured.And,curiouslyenough,manydo,primarilytoamplifymarketingdistinctionsamongtheirtiresatdifferentpricepointsandencouragebuyerstomoveupfroma“good”toa“better”or“best”modelinaparticularcategory.Giventhevariabilityofratingsandthenumberofrelevantfactors,wehavecompiledourowncompositemetricsofperformanceforassessingtires,includingtheFederalratingsnotedbelowandavarietyofotherpublisheddata.5.RollingOntotheFutureEffortstodifferentiatereplacementtiresonthebasisofrollingresistancearestillintheirveryearlystages.Withoutdataontherollingresistanceofalltiremodelsacrossarangeofsizes,itisimpossibletosayforsureifthemodelsidentifiedinthisreportrepresentthemostefficientmodelsorsimplyasubsetofthem.Fornow,consumersandfleetmanagerscanstartwiththedatashownhereandrequestadditionalinformationdirectlyfromretailersandmanufacturers.附录Ｂ：低滚动阻力轮胎根据报告80％的或更多的汽车的燃料是由摩擦和其他类似的损失所消耗的。翻新轮胎具有较低滚动阻力可节省1.5%至4.5％燃料。每年约2.37亿美元的翻新轮胎在销往美国。1.美国的燃料使用、影响和机遇储蓄美国的汽油使用对环境的影响是深远的。拥有超过1.6亿轿车和轻型卡车的道路上，每一年燃烧约126亿加仑汽油。我们的燃料使用以约3％的速度继续增长，在推动整体车辆数目持续增加和每辆汽车的平均距离上升带动下，平均燃油经济性下降。今天，轻型车（汽车和轻型卡车）的约20％的氮氧化物，27％的挥发性有机化合物，一氧化碳的51％，大约30％的二氧化碳（主温室气体）全部是由全国人类活动排放的。不断上涨的燃料的使用也有保护荒野和（容易增加探索）公共土地，水资源（油轮和管道事故），国家安全产生巨大影响。因此，机会节省资金，提高燃料的使用，通过减少环境质量是明确的。为横跨整个车队现有车辆节油最有希望的机会之一是利用而不是标准低滚动阻力轮胎置换模式。这一变化提高了车辆的固有效率，自动节省了典型的3万至5万英里的一套轮胎寿命燃料。该报告审查了通过改进轮胎的节能技术的使用汽油的机会，特别是轮胎型号的建议而我们的初步测试数据表明，环境优势。其结果是适用于政府和企业车队经理以及个人轮胎买家。2.轮胎如何能降低油耗据美国国家科学院，约80%至88％在汽车的油箱的能源被浪费在各种热，摩擦和备用的发动机和排气系统损失。只留下约12%至20%转换为实际车辆运动的势能。减少车辆轮胎的滚动阻力是提高工作效率的主要途径之一。这是不是一个轮胎的牵引或“握”在路面的措施，而是简单地说明如何轻松地轮胎在道路上卷，尽量减少在轮胎侧壁本身之间的轮胎与路面之间的轮胎和轮辋的热量浪费的能源。详细的建模由国家可再生能源实验室进行的结论是：根据驾驶条件和车辆类型，在轮胎滚动阻力减少10％应产生约1%至2％的燃油节省。据在美国加州能源委员会的研究，如果使用的所有更换轮胎具有低1.5%至4.滚动阻力，约5％汽油的使用总量可节省。这相当于大约为平均节省高达30汽油每车每年节约，或由$2.5至750亿美元的全国平均汽油节约价值加仑。由于他们的努力，以满足联邦燃油经济性标准的一部分，汽车制造商通常指定其新车低滚动阻力轮胎。1980年至1994年，最低的滚动阻力轮胎型号实现了滚动阻力减少48％，并有可能以后继续提高。这些原始设备（OE）的轮胎模型，偶尔会在替换轮胎市场，但往往只能通过特殊订货。一般来说，轮胎销售给更换轮胎市场往往把对长寿和低价格更加重视，因此往往有较高的OE轮胎的滚动阻力比。不幸的是两个OE和更换轮胎的滚动阻力没有任何标签，目前，使车队经理和消费者愿意购买高能源效率的轮胎时，他们的第一套OE轮胎磨损已经陷入困境。即使轮胎制造商声称，特别是更换车型比其他人更好的燃油经济性，他们并不总是一致的测试方法或使用独立的实验室数据支持这些说法。每年，约2.37亿没有提供滚动阻力的标签的更换轮胎销往美国的汽车和轻型卡车。2002年，能源基金会资助的ecos咨询，分析轮胎市场，选择滚动阻力测试代表车型，并与绿色标记的工作建议，表现良好的同时实现低滚动阻力特别车型。这些发现第一次被发表在此选择绿色的报告。的ecos咨询的主要发现其他背景中可以找到为加州能源委员会编写的另一份报告，在/reports/2003-01-31_600-03-001CRVOL2.PDF可查。3.轮胎平衡性及其它注意事项轮胎的生产，像其他工业生产过程，涉及重大的开采和生产，以及能源消耗和各种污染物的排放。这些制造每个阶段以不同的方式影响环境。然而，轮胎，像其他消费产品的数量，实际上更多的环境影响在其使用和最终处置比他们负责制造。他们大大影响了车辆消耗的燃料量以它们所连接，导致全球变暖的排放以及当地和区域空气污染。他们创造微粒在穿着过程中的空气污染，他们可以是一个重大的固体废物问