当代国外翻译理论

书目

当代国外翻译理论导读

作者:谢天振编者:谢天振

当

代

国

外

翻

译

理

论

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前B

第一章语言学派翻译理论

1,罗曼•雅科布逊论翻译的语言学问题

2,彼得•纽马克交际翻译及语义翻译（H）

3.约翰•卡特福德论翻译转换

4.尤金•奈达论对等原则

5.巴兹尔•哈蒂姆互文介入：利用翻译中缺省语篇的理论体系

6.玛丽•斯奈尔一霍恩比翻译：一种跨文化活动

其次章阐释学派翻译理论

7.乔治•斯坦纳阐释的步骤

8.安托瓦纳•贝尔曼翻译及对异的考验

第三章功能学派翻译理论

9.凯瑟琳娜•莱斯翻译的选择：类型、体裁及文本的特性

10.汉斯•弗米尔翻译行为中的目的及委任

1L克里斯汀娜•诺德目的、忠诚及翻译中的惯例

第四章文化学派翻译理论

12.詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯翻译学的名及实

13.伊塔玛•埃文一佐哈翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位

14.吉迪恩•图里描述性翻译探讨的理论基础

15.安德烈•勒菲弟尔大胆妈妈的黄瓜：文学理论中的文本、系

统和折射

16.苏珊•巴斯奈特文化探讨的翻译转向

17.西奥•赫曼斯翻译探讨及其新范式

第五章解构学派翻译理论

18.瓦尔特•本雅明译者的任务

19.雅克•德里达巴别塔之旅

20.保罗•德曼评本雅明的《译者的任务》

21.劳伦斯•韦努蒂文化身份的塑造

第六章女性主义翻译理论

22.雪莉•西蒙翻译理论中的性别化立场

23.劳丽•钱伯伦性别及翻译的隐喻

24.巴巴拉•格达德女性主义话语/翻译的理论化

25.冯•弗罗托女性主义翻译理论指责

第七章后殖民翻译理论

26.道格拉斯•罗宾逊后殖民探讨及翻译探讨

27.特佳斯维妮•尼南贾纳翻译的定位

28.盖亚特里•斯皮瓦克翻译的政治

29.埃尔斯•维埃拉解放卡利班们一一论食人说及哈罗德•德•坎

波斯的超越/越界性创建诗学

第八章苏东学派翻译理论

30.安德烈•费奥多罗夫翻译理论的任务

31.吉维•加切奇拉泽文学翻译中的创建性原则

32.吉里•列维翻译是一个作选择的过程

33.安姗•丽洛娃翻译探讨的范畴

TranslationTheory

(2019-09-2914:13:41)

标签:

学习公

社

transl

ation

englis

h

theory

TranslationTheory

ByJuanDanielPerezVallejo

Translationteacher,

UniversityofCd.DelCarmen,Campeche,Mexico

Thestudyofproperprincipleoftranslationistermedas

translationtheory.Thistheory,basedonasolid

foundationonunderstandingofhowlanguageswork,

translationtheoryrecognizesthatdifferentlanguages

encodemeaningindifferingforms,yetguidestranslators

tofindappropriatewaysofpreservingmeaning,while

usingthemostappropriateformsofeachlanguage.

Translationtheoryincludesprinciplesfortranslating

figurativelanguage,dealingwithlexicalmismatches,

rhetoricalquestions,inclusionofcohesionmarkers,and

manyothertopicscrucialtogoodtranslation.

Basicallytherearetwocompetingtheoriesoftranslation.

Inone,thepredominantpurposeistoexpressasexactly

aspossiblethefullforceandmeaningofeverywordand

turnofphraseintheoriginal,andintheotherthe

predominantpurposeistoproducearesultthatdoesnot

readlikeatranslationatall,butrathermovesinits

newdresswiththesameeaseasinitsnativerendering.

Inthehandsofagoodtranslatorneitherofthesetwo

approachescaneverbeentirelyignored.

Conventionally,itissuggestedthatinordertoperform

theirjobsuccessfully,translatorsshouldmeetthree

importantrequirements;theyshouldbefamiliarwith:

thesourcelanguage

thetargetlanguage

thesubjectmatter

Basedonthispremise,thetranslatordiscoversthemeaning

behindtheformsinthesourcelanguageanddoeshisbest

toproducethesamemeaninginthetargetlanguage-using

theformsandstructuresofthetargetlanguage.

Consequently,whatissupposedtochangeistheformand

thecodeandwhatshouldremainunchangedisthemeaning

andthemessage.(Larson,1984)

Oneoftheearliestattemptstoestablishasetofmajor

rulesorprinciplestobereferredtoinliterary

translationwasmadebyFrenchtranslatorandhumanist

EtienneDolet,whoin1540formulatedthefollowing

fundamentalprinciplesoftranslation("LaManieredeBien

Traduired'uneLangueenAultre"),usuallyregardedas

providingrulesofthumbforthepracticingtranslator:

Thetranslatorshouldunderstandperfectlythecontentand

intentionoftheauthorwhomheistranslating.The

principalwaytoreachitisreadingallthesentencesor

thetextcompletelysothatyoucangivetheideathatyou

wanttosayinthetargetlanguagebecausethemost

importantcharacteristicofthistechniqueistranslating

themessageasclearlyandnaturalaspossible.Ifthe

translationisfordifferentcountriesbesidesMexico,the

translatorshouldusetheculturalwordsofthatcountry.

Forexampleifhe/shehastotranslate“Sheisunloyalwith

herhusband”inthiscountryitcanbetranslatedas”Ella

leponeloscuernos”butinPeruitcanbetranslatedas

“Ellaleponeloscachos”.Inthiscaseitisreally

importanttheculturalwordsbecauseifthetranslatordoes

notusethemcorrectlythetranslationwillbe

misunderstood.

Thetranslatorshouldhaveaperfectknowledgeofthe

languagefromwhichheistranslatingandanequally

excellentknowledgeofthelanguageintowhichheis

translating.Atthispointthetranslatormusthaveawide

knowledgeinbothlanguagesforgettingtheequivalencein

thetargetlanguage,becausethedeficiencyofthe

knowledgeofbothlanguageswillresultinatranslation

withoutlogicandsense.Forexampleifyoutranslatethe

followingsentence“Areyouinterestedinsports?”as

ZEstdsinteresadoendeportes?”thetranslationis

wrongsincetheideaofthisquestioninEnglishis

“4Practicasalgundeporte?n

Thetranslatorshouldavoidthetendencytotranslateword

byword,becausedoingsoistodestroythemeaningofthe

originalandtoruinthebeautyoftheexpression^.This

pointisveryimportantandoneofwhichifitistranslated

literallyitcantransmitanothermeaningorunderstanding

inthetranslation.

Forexampleinthesentence.-"Tnthiswarwehavetodo

ordie”,ifwetranslateliterally“Enestaguerra

tenemosquehaceromorir“themessageisunclear.Theidea

is,(.)“Enestaguerratenemosqueveneeromorir.v

Thetranslatorshouldemploytheformsofspeechincommon

usage.Thetranslatorshouldbearinmindthepeopleto

whomthetranslationwillbeaddressedandusewordsthat

canbeeasilyunderstood.Example."Theyuseaslingto

liftthepipes“ifthetranslationistobereadby

specialistswewouldtranslateit^Utilizanunaeslinga

paralevantarlatuberiav.Ifthetextistobereadby

peoplewhoarenotspecialistswewouldrathertranslate

ituUtilizanuracadenadesuspensionparalevantarlos

tubos”.

FliptoTextVersionLaTrobeUniversity

HarryAveling

AShortHistoryofWesternTranslationTheory

1.TraditionalTranslationTheories

Thereisacontinuityofintellectualexpressionfrom

AncientGreece,Rome,theMiddleAges,throughtothe

Renaissance,theReformation,andtheriseoftheearly

Europeannationstates.Thecentrallanguageofscholars

andotherreaderswasLatin,whilethecoreofthis

traditionwasclassicalliteratureandJudeo-Christianity.

Therewasaprofusionofeconomicandpoliticalcontacts

throughoutEuropeandtheMiddleEast,andthismusthave

involvedanabundanceoflinguistictransactions.

Nevertheless,Lefevere'zswordsprovideanaccurate

backgroundtounderstandingthesocialpositionofthe

subjectsoftraditionaltranslationtheory:〃Insucha

culture,translationswerenotprimarilyreadfor

informationorthemediationoftheforeigntext.Theywere

producedandreadasexercises,firstpedagogical

exercises,andlateron,asexercisesincultural

appropriation-intheconsciousandcontrolledusurpation

ofauthority.，z(Lefevere1990:16).

2.GermanRomanticism

Atthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,asecond,more

philosophicalandlessempirical,formationbegantoopen

withindiscoursesontranslationtheory(Munday2019:27).

Thisformationwasconnected,inonedirection,withthe

riseofphilologyasauniversitydiscipline,andin

anotherwiththeliterarymovementofRomanticism.

Philologyprovidedarangeofnewandexotictextsand

allowedtheexpertstoproducetranslationsaimed

primarilyatotherexperts,notthegeneralcultureof

whichthesescholarswereapart(Lefevere1990:22).

Romanticismexaltedthetranslator〃asacreativegenius

inhisownright,intouchwiththegeniusofhisoriginal

andenrichingtheliteratureandlanguageintowhichheis

translating7"(Bassnett-McGuire1980:65).Thestresson

boththeoriginalauthorandthetranslatorasbeing

artistswasnotpartoftraditionaldiscourseformations.

3.TheEarlyandMiddleTwentiethCentury

DiscussioninEnglishoftranslationtheoryduringthe

firsthalfofthetwentiethcenturycontinuedtobe

dominatedbythethemesofVictoriandiscourseon

translation,^literalness,archaizing,pedantryandthe

productionofatextofsecond-rateliterarymeritforan

eliteminority”(Bassnett-McGuire1980:73).Inhislist

ofmajorcontributorstotheareaoftranslationtheory,

SteinerrecognisesonlythenamesofDryden,Quineand

PoundamongEnglish-speakers.QuineandPoundbothbelong

tothetwentiethcenturyandchallengedthedominant

discourse.WillardV.Quine(b.1908),amajorAmerican

philosopher,wroteon“theindeterminacyoftranslation”

withinthefieldoflinguisticphilosophy(QuineI960).

EzraPound(1885-1972)wasapoetardcritic.RonnieApter

hasarguedthatPoundmadethreemajorinnovationsto

thinkingabout“thenatureandintentofliterary

translation…hediscardedtheVictorianpseudo-archaic

translationdiction;heregardedeachtranslationasa

necessarilylimitedcriticismoftheoriginalpoem;andhe

regardedgoodtranslationsasnewpoemsintheirownright”

(Apter1987:3).

Moreradical,andmoredecisive,developmentsin

translationtheorytookplaceinEurope.Thesebeginwith

theRussianFormalistmovement,whichfocusedonthez，what

makesliterarytextsdifferentfromothertexts,whatmakes

themnew,creative,innovative”(Gentzler1993:79).One

oftheiranswerswasthatliterarytextsrelyonaprocess

of//defamiliarisation/，,usinglanguageinnewand

strikinglydifferentwaysfromordinaryspeech.Thisled

theFormalisttofocusonz，surfacestructuralfeatures"and

〃toanalysethemtolearnwhatdeterminesliterarystatus”

(Gentzler1993:79).Insodoing,theybeganthesearchfor

descriptiverules,whichwouldhelpscholarsunderstand

theprocessoftranslation,andnotnormativerules,in

ordertostudyandassesstheworkofothertranslators

(Bell1991:12).Theirworkwasextendedandrefinedbythe

Pragueschooloflinguistics,foundedbyRomanJakobson,

whohadearlierworkedinMoscow.Inhisessay〃0nthe

LinguisticAspectsofTranslation^(1959),Jakobson

expandedtraditionaldiscourseof"equivalence"intothe

themeof,'equivalenceindifference”.Insodoing,he

arguedthatwordsshouldbeseenwithintheir(arbitrary)

semioticcontext,andthat"thegrammaticalpatternofa

language(asopposedtoitslexicalstock)determinesthose

aspectsofeachexperiencethatmustbeexpressedinthe

givenlanguage”(Venuti2000:114).

4.TranslationStudies

Threefactorsworkedtolimitthissharpfocuson

descriptivelinguisticsasthemajorformofdiscourseon

translation.ThefirstwasthequestioningofChomsky's

linguistictheoriesbylinguiststhemselves.Thesecond

wasthedevelopmentofanumberofnewanddynamicfields

withinlinguistics,suchas^discourseanalysis,text

linguistics,sociolinguistics,computationallinguistics,

prototypesemantics,andotherassortedwonders”(Pym1992:

184).These“wonders〃tookinpriorfieldssuchasBritish

socialanthropologyandAmericanculturalanthropology,as

we11ascontemporaryandparalleldevelopmentsin

philosophy,informationandcommunicationtheories,

computationallinguistics,machinetranslation,

artificialintelligence,andtheideasofsocio-semiotics

asdevelopedwithinFrenchstructuralistand

post-structuralistthought(Nida2019:110).Thesense

increasedthat:"Languageisnottheproblem.Ideologyand

politicsare・・・〃(Lefevere1990:26).Thishasledtoa

separationbetweenlinguisticandculturalapproachesto

translationinthelastquarterofthetwentiethcentury.

Forsometranslationscholars,indeed,ithasseemedthat

“strictlylinguistictheorieshavebeensuperseded,[as]

translationhascometobeconsideredinitscultural,

historicalandsociologicalcontext”(Woodsworth2019:

100).

BasicKnowledgeofTranslationTheory

I.Translation

1.Definition

1)Thedefinitionintheolddays

1"译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”一一贾公彦

(618-907)唐朝

1“夫翻译者，谓翻梵天之语转成汉地之言。音虽似别,

义则大同。”——法云(960-1279)宋代

Itmeansthattranslationisarenderingfromnbone

language(SourceLanguage)intoanother(TargetLanguage),

remainingthemeaning.

1TheBritishscholarDr.SamuelJohnsononcesaid:

“Totranslateistochangeintoanotherlanguage,

remainingthesense.”

2)Thecurrentdefinition

1TheAmericantranslationtheoristEugeneA.Nida

wrotein1964:Translationconsistsinreproducingin

thereceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalence

ofthesourcelanguage,firstintermsofmeaningand

secondlyintermsofstyle.(所谓翻译，是在译语中用切

近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息，首先是意义，其次

是文体。)

1)再现原文的信息(message)而不是保留原文的形式

结构(formalstructure)

2)对等(equivalence)不是同一,(identity)

3)对等是最贴近、自然的对等

4)意义是优先考虑的因素

5)文体很重要

1TheBritishtranslationtheoristTytler,s

definitionin1970abouttranslation:"Agood

translationisonewhichthemeritoftheoriginalwork

issocompletelytransfusedintoanotherlanguageasto

beasdistinctlyapprehendedandasstronglyfeltbya

nativeofthecountrytowhichthatlanguagebelongsas

itisbythosewhospeakthelanguageoftheoriginal

work.

1Prof.HuangLongTranslatology

Translationmaybedefinedasfollows:

Thereplacementoftextualmaterialinonelanguage(SL)

byequivalenttextualmaterialinanotherlanguage(TL)

(翻译可以作以下界定：用一种语言(目的语)的文本材料

对等地再现另一种语言(源出语)的文本材料。)

1)部分地替代

2)对等概念

Insummary

1)Translationistheinformationtransferring

betweentwolanguagesandtheculturalcommunication

betweentwolanguagefamilies.

2)Translationisarenderingfromonelanguage

intoanother.Translationisascience,anart,a

bilingualart,acraft,askill,anoperationand

communication.

3)Translationisarepresentationorrecreation

inonelanguageofwhatiswrittenorsaidinanother

language.

4)Translationisakindofsciencebecauseitwas

awholesetofrulesgoverningitandcertain

objectivelawstogobyintheprocessoftranslating.

2.Varietiesoftranslation

1)Interpretationandwrittentranslation

2)IntermsofSLandTL,Interlingualtranslation

语际(不同语言之间)，Intralingualtranslation语内(同

一语言rewording),Intersemiotictranslation符际(eg.

把语言符号用图画、手势、数字或音乐来表达)

3)Intermsofstyle,politicalessay政论，

practicalwriting应用文，scienceandtechnology科

技，literarytranslation

II.TranslationCriteriaorPrinciple

1Tytler's:EssayonthePrinciplesof

Translation,1791

1)Atranslationshouldgiveacomplete

transcriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork.

译文应完全复写出原作的思想。

2)Thestyleandmannerofwritingshould

beofthesamecharacterasthatoftheoriginal.

译文的风格和笔调应及原文的性质相同。

3)Atranslationshouldhavealltheease

oftheoriginalcomposition.译文应和原作同样

流畅。

1Yanfu's:Faithfulness,Expressiveness

andElegance(信、达、雅)

1.“Faithfulness“meansthefulland

completeconveyingoftheoriginalcontentof

thought.

2.“Expressiveness”demandsthatthe

versionshouldbeclearandflowingwithoutany

grammaticalmistakesorconfusedlogicand

sense.

3.“Elegance”referstotheuseof

classicalChinesebeforetheHanDynasty.

Insummary,thefirsttwowordsastranslation

criteriaareacceptable.Theoriginalmeaningof

“Elegance”isunacceptablefortoday,butwecan

giveitnewsense-----elegantstyleintranslation.

1Others:

LuXun's（鲁迅）translationprinciple:

Ratherbefaithful（inthought）thansmooth（in

language）inoppositiontoLiangShi-qiu's

translationprinciplein1930s.（宁信不顺）

FuLei's付雷translationcriteria:TLshouldbe

similartoSLbothinFormandinSpirit.（形彳以、

神似）

LiuChongde's文!J重德translationcriteria:

faithfulness,expressivenessandcloseness.（信、

达、切）faithfulness:tobefaithfultothecontent

oftheoriginal;expressiveness:tobeasexpressive

andsmoothastheoriginal;closeness:tobeasclose

totheoriginalstyleaspossible.

LiangShiqiu'sandZhaoJingshen's（梁实秋,赵

景深）translationprinciplein1930s:"It'sbetter

tohaveasmoothversionthanafaithfulone.”宁

错务顺

EugeneA.Nida'stranslationprinciple:Dynamic

equivalenceorFunctionalequivalenceor

Equivalent-effecttheory.Themainideaisthatthe

translatoristoproduceasnearlypossiblethesame

effectonhisreadersaswasproducedonthereaders

oftheoriginal.

PeterNewmarkstranslationprinciple:Fromthe

angleofcontextualanalysis,heputsforwardtwo

translationapproaches:Semantictranslationand

Communicativetranslation.

Semantictranslation:Thetranslatorattempts,

withinthebaresyntacticandsemanticconstraints

oftheTL,toproducetheprecisecontextualmeaning

oftheauthor.Semantictranslationfocuses

primarilyuponthesemanticcontentofthesource

text.

Communicativetranslation:Thetranslatorattempts

toproducethesameeffectontheTLreadersaswas

producedbytheoriginalontheSLreaders.

Communicativetranslationfocusesessentiallyupon

thecomprehensionandresponseofreceptors.

1Insummary,translationcriteria:

faithfulnessandsmoothness忠实及通顺.

FaithfulnessreferstothatcontentandstyleofTL

shouldbefaithfultotheSL.

Smoothnessrequiresthatversionshouldbeclearand

distinct,flowingandeasytoreadwithoutsignsof

themechanicalword-for-wordtranslation,of

obscurelanguage,ofgrammaticalmistakes,confused

structureandlogic.

III.Prerequisitesofatranslator

AsZhouEn-laisaid:Tobeagoodtranslatorweshould

strengthenour“basictraining”inthethreeessential

aspects:

1)Theenhancementofourpolitical

consciousness

2)Thebettermentofourcommandofthe

relevantlanguages

3)Thebroadeningoftherangeandscopeof

ourgeneralknowledge.

IV.Translationstrategies:foreignizationand

domestication

Foreignizationthetranslator'spreferenceis

placedonpreservingthelanguageandcultural

differencesoftheSourceText,wecallthiskindof

approachesoritstranslationforeignizingor

foreignization.

Domestication/Itrefersthemethodorpracticeof

adaptingthetranslationtothenormsandvaluesofthe

TargetLanguageandcultureiscalleddomesticatingor

domestication.

Forexample,

C-E

谋事在人，成事在天。（曹：95）

Manproposes,Heavendisposes.（Yang:90）

Manproposes,Goddisposes.（Hawkes:152）

注：杨宪益利用了一个英语谚语，但把其中的“God”改成了

"Heaven",从而保留了原有的宗教色调。而Hawkes干脆引用

了英语谚语，未作任何改动，这样，他把原文的佛教色调变成了

基督教色调。这样英美读者更为自然、更简单接受。当然，这样

一来，Hawkes把一个信佛的人变成了一个信耶稣的人了。

E-C

Hemadeyouforahighwaytomybed;butI,amaid,die

maiden—widowed.（W.Shakespeare:RomeoandJuliet,3,

3,134-135）

译文1：他要借着你做牵引相思的桥梁，可是我却要做一个独守

空阁的怨女而死去。（朱生豪译）（归）

译文2：他要借你作捷径，登上我的床；可怜我这处女，守活寡,

到死是处女。（方平译）（异）

Unlessyou'veanaceupyoursleeve,wearedished.

误译：除非你有锦囊妙计，否则我们是输定了。（归）

改译：除非你手中藏有王牌，否则我们是输定了。（异）

注：英语中ace是西方玩牌赌博时藏于袖中的“王牌”，而“锦

囊妙计”则是中国古代宫廷争斗或疆场征战时封在“锦囊”中

的神妙计策，彼此有迥然不同的文化背景和内涵。

AmongWolvesonemusthowl.

入乡随俗（归）

在狼群中你就得嗥（异）

注：异化的翻译方法为汉语表达同一意思供应了一个新奇新颖的

语言形式。

Gotolawforasheep,youloseacow.

捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜。（归）

为一只羊打官司，却损失了一头牛。（异）

注：异化的翻译策略表示律师借打官司之际，向原告和被告收取

尽可能多的钱财，反映了西方民族习惯于通过法律途径解决纠纷

的文化习尚。

V.Twobasictranslationmethods:Literal

TranslationandLiberal（Free）Translation

LiteralTrans1ationmeansword-for-wordtranslation.It

takessentencesasitsbasicunitsandthewholetextinto

considerationatthesametimeinthecourseoftranslation.

Itstrivestoreproduceboththeideologicalcontentand

thestyleoftheentireliteraryworkandretainasmuch

aspossiblethefiguresofspeech.

LiberalTranslationisalsocalledFreeTranslation.Itis

asupplementarymeanstomainlyconveythemeaningand

spiritoftheoriginalwithouttryingtoreproduceits

sentencepatternorfiguresofspeech.

Forexample,

E-C

Tokilltwobirdswithonestone.

直译：一石二鸟

意译：一箭双雕，一箭双雕

Theworstwheelofacartcreaksmost.

直译：最坏的车轮最会嘎吱响。

意译：才学最差，叫喊最响；出力最少，埋怨最忙；能猫不叫，

叫猫不能。

C-E

树倒御剂散

直译：Whenthetreefalls,themonkeysscatter.

意译：Membersrunawaywhenthefamilyfalls./Ratsleave

asinkingship.

VI.Terms

1Polysemy:Onewordhasvariouspartsof

speechandvariousmeaning.Firthsaid:"Each

wordwhenusedinanewcontextisanewword.

Eg.Dry

Iwantmymartinidry.(notsweet)

我的马丁尼酒不要甜的。

TherearestillsomedrystatesintheUnitedStates.

在美国尚有几洲禁酒。

Sheprefersdrybread,(withoutbutter)

她喜爱无奶油的面包。

Thecowsaredry.(notsupplyingmilk)

这些母牛缺奶。

Hegaveusadrylectureyesterday.

昨天他给我们作了一个味同嚼蜡的讲演。

Iamsurewhathepresentedwasadryfact,(plain,

undisguised)

我信任，他所列举的是铁一般的事实。

1Commendatoryandderogatorywords:

Commendatorywordmeansapraisingword,oraword

ingoodsense.Derogatorywordmeansawordto

lessenorimpairthepowerorauthorityoraword

inbadsense.

Eg.

Manypeoplethinkthatheisoneofthemostambitious

politiciansofourtimes.

许多人认为他是现今最有野心的政客之一。

Althoughheisveryyoung,heisveryambitiousinhis

researchwork.

他虽然很年轻，但是在探讨工作中很有雄心壮志。

Theyincitedhimtogointofurtherinvestigation

他们激励他做进一步的调查。

Theplottersincitedthesoldierstoriseagainsttheir

officers.

阴谋家煽动士兵们造军官的反。

1Diction:Itmeansproperchoiceofwordsin

translationonthebasisofaccurate

comprehensionoftheoriginal.

Eg.Context

Wecanmakeoutthemeaningofthewordfromthecontext,

我们可以从上下文推断出这个词的意思。

WeshouldsettlethedisputesinthecontextoftheFive

PrinciplesofPeacefulCoexistence.

我们应当在和平共处五项原则的基础上解决这些争端。（inthe

contextof以...为精神，在....的基础上）

ItisinthiscontextthatthetragedyofSaharawasborn.

撒哈拉沙悲剧正在这种状况下发生。

WemustoperatewithinthecontextoftheOlympianSpirit.

我们必需依据奥林匹克精神办事。

Inthiscontext,I'vetocallyourattentiontothefact

thatthepeacefultrendintheIndo-ChinaPeninsulais

essentialtopeaceintheworld.

就此而论，我不得不提示大家留意这样一个事实：印度支那半岛

局势的稳定对世界和平来说是至关重要的。

Thetraditionalpatternofclassroomexperienceatthe

collegelevelbringstheprofessorandagroupof20to

30studentstogetherfora45-to-50minuteclasssession

twoorthreetimesaweek.Themostcommonmodeof

instructionisthelecture.

由一位教授和二三十名学生每周会见两三次，每次授课时间

45分钟到50分钟，是高校程度课堂教学的传统方式。最普遍

的教学方式是讲课。

1Repetition:Intranslationwearerequired

torepeatwordsoverandoveragainforclearness,

forthesakeofemphasisandforattractiveness

(vividness).

Eg.

Bigfamilieshadtheirowndifficulties.

大家庭有大家庭的难处。

Ignoranceisthemotheroffearaswe11asofadmiration.

无知是艳羡的根源，也是恐惊的根源。

1Amplification:Itmeanssupplyingnecessary

wordsinourtranslationworksoastomakethe

versioncorrectandclear.Wordsthussupplied

mustbeindispensableeithersyntacticallyor

semantically.

Thenumberofchildrenbeingexcludedintheareaisgetting

outofhand.

该地区学生被开除的现象已到了无法限制的地步。

“AccordingtoDr