管理经济学（原书第14版） 课件 第8章　生产与短期成本

Chapter08ProductionandCostintheShortRunMANAGERIALECONOMICSFoundationsofBusinessAnalysisandStrategyFourteenthEditionCHRISTOPHERR.THOMAS©McGrawHillLLC.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGrawHillLLC.LearningOutcomes8.1Explaingeneralconceptsofproductionandcostanalysis.8.2Examinethestructureofshort-runproductionbasedontherelationamongtotal,average,andmarginalproducts.8.3Examinethestructureofshort-runcostsusinggraphsofthetotalcostcurves,averagecostcurves,andtheshort-runmarginalcostcurve.8.4Relateshort-runcoststotheproductionfunctionusingtherelationsbetween(a)averagevariablecostandaverageproductand(b)short-runmarginalcostandmarginalproduct.2ProductionFunctionsProductionisthecreationofgoodsandservicesfrominputsorresources.ProductionfunctionAschedule(orequation)showingthemaximumamountofoutputthatcanbeproducedfromanyspecifiedsetofinputs,givenexistingtechnology.VariableproportionsproductionProductioninwhichagivenlevelofoutputcanbeproducedwithmorethanonecombinationofinputs.FixedproportionsproductionProductioninwhichone,andonlyone,ratioofinputscanbeusedtoproduceagood.3TechnicalandEconomicEfficiencyTechnicalefficiencyProducingthemaximumamountofoutputforanygivencombinationofinputsandexistingtechnology.EconomicefficiencyProducingagivenlevelofoutputatthelowestpossibletotalcost.4Inputs1Inputsareconsideredvariableorfixed

dependingonhowreadilytheirusagecanbechanged.VariableinputAninputforwhichthelevelofusagemaybevariedtoincreaseordecreaseoutput.FixedinputAninputforwhichthelevelofusageremainsconstantasoutputvariesandwhichmusttypicallybepaidforevenifnooutputisproduced.5Inputs2TypeIinputfixityInputfixityarisingwhenprohibitivelyhighadjustmentcostscausemanagerstotreatinputusageasfixedoverashorttimespan.TypeIIinputfixityInputfixityarisingwhenaninputislumpyorindivisiblesothattheamountofinputusedcannotvarywiththelevelofoutput.6Figure8.1TypesofProductionInputsAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.7ShortRunandLongRunShortrunAtimeperiodofproductionduringwhichoneormoreinputsisfixedbecauseitisprohibitivelycostlytochangetheusageofthefixedinput.LongrunTimeperiodlongenoughorfarenoughinthefuturetoallowallshort-runfixedinputs(TypeI)tobecomevariableinputs.PlanninghorizonSetofallpossibleshort-runsituationsthefirmcanfaceinthefuture.8Figure8.2TypesofInputsEmployedintheShortRunandLongRunAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.9EconomicCosts,SunkCosts,andAvoidableCostsEconomiccostOpportunitycostsofallinputsusedbyafirmtoproducegoodsorservices.AvoidablecostPaymentforaninput(fixedorvariable)thatafirmcanavoidpayingshouldthefirmnolongerwishtousetheinput.Mattersindecisionmakingandshouldnotbeignored.SunkcostPaymentforafixedinputthat,oncemadeorlegallycontractedtobemade,cannotlaterbeavoidedorrecoveredshouldthefirmnolongerwishtousetheinput.Notpartoftheeconomiccostofproductioninfuturetimeperiods.Shouldbeignoredfordecision-makingpurposes.10Figure8.3AvoidableCostsandSunkCostsAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.11TotalEconomicCostTotaleconomiccostinboththeshortrunandthelongrunisthesumofallavoidableinputcosts,asonlyavoidablecostsimposeopportunitycostsforusinginputsinproduction.Totalavoidablecostincludesallvariableinputcostsplusanyavoidablecostsoffixedinputs.Totaleconomiccost=Totalavoidablecost=Totalvariablecosts+TotalavoidablefixedcostsSunkcosts,whichhavepreviouslybeenpaidorpreviouslycommittedtobepaid,arenotpartofeconomiccostsofproduction.12Short-RunProductionIntheshortrun,capitalisafixedinputCapitalisaTypeIfixedinputandtherearenoTypeIIfixedinputs.Onlychangesinthevariablelaborinputcanchangethelevelofoutput.Short-runproductionfunction:13Table8.1AProductionFunctionUnitsofCapital(K)UnitsofLabor(L)01234567891000000000000010255274901001081141181201212055112162198224242252258262264308317024730334236938439440040340108220325400453488511527535540501252583904785435906316536636706013728642552359865570473274475370141304453559643708766800814825801433144745876797538188578738859014131848860970878986190592293510013731449261772280988793595396714AverageandMarginalProductsAverageproductoflabor(AP)AP=Q∕LMarginalproductoflabor(MP)MP=ΔQ∕ΔLWhenAPisrising,MPisgreaterthanAP.WhenAPisfalling,MP

islessthanAP.WhenAPreachesitmaximum,AP=MP.Lawofdiminishingmarginalproduct:Asusageofavariableinputincreaseswithotherinputsheldconstant,apointisreachedbeyondwhichitsmarginalproductdecreases.15Table8.2Total,Average,andMarginalProductsofLabor(CapitalFixedat2units)(1)NumberofWorkers(L)(2)TotalProduct(Q)(3)AverageProduct(AP=Q∕L)(4)MarginalProduct(MP=ΔQ∕ΔL)00––152525221125660317056.75842205550525851.638628647.728730443.418831439.310931835.341031431.4−416Figure8.4Total,Average,andMarginalProducts(CapitalFixedat2units)Accessthetextalternativeforslideimages.17Table8.3TheEffectofChangesinCapitalStockLQAPMPQAPMP00––0––1525252747474211256601628188317056.75824782.3854220555032581.378525851.6383907865628647.72842570.835730443.41845364.728831439.31047459.321931835.3448854.2141031431.4−449249.2418Figure8.5ShiftsinTotal,Average,andMarginalProductCurvesAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.19Short-RunProductionCostsTotalfixedcost(TFC)Totalamountpaidforfixedinputs.Doesnotvarywithoutput.Totalvariablecost(TVC)Totalamountpaidforvariableinputs.Increasesasoutputincreases.Totalcost(TC)Thesumoftotalfixedcostandtotalvariablecost.Increaseswithincreasesinoutput.TC=TFC+TVC20Table8.4Short-RunTotalCostSchedules(1)Output(Q)(2)TotalFixedCost(TFC)(3)TotalVariableCost(TVC)(4)TotalCost(TC)TC=TFC+TVC0$6,000$0$6,0001006,0004,00010,0002006,0006,00012,0003006,0009,00015,0004006,00014,00020,0005006,00022,00028,0006006,00034,00040,00021Figure8.7TotalCostCurvesAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.22AverageCostsAveragefixedcost(AFC)Averagevariablecost(AVC)Averagetotalcost(ATC)23Short-RunMarginalCostShort-runmarginalcost(SMC)measuresrateofchangeineithertotalvariablecostortotalcost(TC)perunitchangeinoutput.24Table8.5AverageandMarginalCostSchedules(1)Output(Q)(2)AverageFixedCost(AFC)AFC=TFC∕Q(3)AverageVariableCost(AVC)AVC=TVC∕Q(4)AverageTotalCost(ATC)ATC=TC∕Q(5)Short-RunMarginalCost(SMC)SMC=ΔTC∕ΔQ0––––100$60$40$100$40200303060203002030503040015355050500124456806001056.766.712025Figure8.8AverageandMarginalCostCurvesAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.26Figure8.9Short-RunAverageandMarginalCostCurvesAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.27Short-RunCostCurveRelations1AFCdecreasescontinuouslyasoutputincreases.EqualtoverticaldistancebetweenATCandAVC.AVCisU-shapedEqualsSMCatAVC’sminimum.ATCisU-shapedEqualsSMCatATC’sminimum.28Short-RunCostCurveRelations2SMCisU-shapedIntersectsAVCandATCattheirminimumpoints.LiesbelowAVCandATCwhenAVCandATCarefalling.LiesaboveAVCandATCwhenAVCandATCarerising.29RelationsBetweenShort-RunCostsandProduction1Inthecaseofasinglevariableinput,short-runcostsarerelatedtotheproductionfunctionbytworelations:wherewisthepriceofthevariableinput.TC=wL+rKwhereristhepriceofthefixedinput.30RelationsBetweenShort-RunCostsandProduction2Whenmarginalproduct(averageproduct)isincreasing,marginalcost(averagecost)isdecreasing.Whenmarginalproduct(averageproduct)isdecreasing,marginalcost(averagevariablecost)isincreasing.Whenmarginalproduct=averageproductatmaximumAP,marginalcost=averagevariablecostatminimumAVC.Table8.6Short-RunProductionandShort-RunTotalCostsShort-RunProductionShort-RunTotalCosts(1)Labor(L)(2)Output(Q)(3)TotalVariableCost(TVC=wL)(4)TotalFixedCost(TFC=rK)(5)TotalCost(TC=wL+rK)000$6,000$6,0004100$4,0006,00010,00062006,0006,00012,00093009,0006,00015,0001440014,0006,00020,0002250022,0006,00028,0003460034,0006,00040,00032Table8.7AverageandMarginalRelationsBetweenCostandProductionShort-RunProductionShort-RunCosts(1)Labor(2)Q(3)AP(Q∕L)(4)MP(ΔQ∕ΔL)(5)AVC(w∕AP)(6)SMC(w∕MP)00––––41002525$40$40620033.33503020930033.3333.3330301440028.572035502250022.7312.5044803460017.658.3356.6712033Figure8.10Short-RunProductionandCostRelationsAccessthetextalternativeforslideimages.34Summary1Technicalefficiencyoccurswhenafirmproducesmaximumoutputforagiveninputcombinationandtechnology;economicefficiencyisachievedwhenthefirmproducesagivenoutputatthelowesttotalcost.Productioninputscanbevariableorfixed.FixedinputsmaybeeitherTypeIorTypeIIfixedinputs.ShortrunreferstothecurrenttimespanduringwhichoneormoreinputsisaTypeIfixedinput;long

runreferstotheperiodfarenoughinthefuturethatallTypeIfixedinputsbecomevariableinputs.Sunkcostsareirrelevantforfuturedecisionsandarenotpartofeconomiccostofproductioninfuturetimeperiods;avoidablecostsarepaymentsafirmcanrecoveroravoid,thustheydomatterindecisions.35Summary2Thetotalproductcurvegivestheeconomicallyefficientamountoflaborforanyoutputlevelwhencapitalisfixedintheshortrun.Averageproductoflaboristhetotalproductdividedbythenumberofworkers:AP=Q∕L.Marginalproductoflaboristheadditionaloutputattributabletousingoneadditionalworkerwiththeuseofcapitalfixed:MP=ΔQ∕ΔL.Thelawofdiminishingmarginalproductstatesthatasthenumberofunitsofthevariableinputincreases,otherinputsheldconstant,apointwillbereachedbeyondwhichthemarginalproductofthevariableinputdeclines.36Summary3Short-runtotalcost,TC,

isthesumoftotalvariablecost,TVC,andtotalfixedcost,TFC:TC=TVC+TFC.Averagefixedcost,AFC,isTFC

dividedbyoutput:AFC=TFC∕Q;averagevariablecost,AVC,isTVC

dividedbyoutput:AVC=TVC∕Q;averagetotalcost(ATC)isTC

dividedbyoutput:ATC=TC∕Q.Short-runmarginalcost,SMC,isthechangeineitherTVC

orTC

perunitchangeinoutputQ.Thelinkbetweenproductcurvesandcostcurvesintheshortrunwhenoneinputisvariableisreflectedintherelations,AVC=w∕APandSMC=w/MP,wherew

isthepriceofthevariableinput.37EndofMainContent©McGrawHillLLC.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGrawHillLLC.AccessibilityContent:TextAlternativesforImages39Figure8.1TypesofProductionInputs

-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Thediagramhasfiveblocks.Startingfromtheleft,aboxlabeledinputislinkedtotwoboxeslabeledvariableinputandfixedinput.TheboxfixedinputislinkedtotwoboxeslabeledType1fixedinput:prohibitivelycostlytoadjustusageandType2fixedinput:Lumpy,indivisibleinputcannotbeadjusted.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.40Figure8.2TypesofInputsEmployedintheShortRunandLongRun

-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Thefirstdiagramhasfourblocks.Ablocklabeledshortrunislinkedtothreeboxesarrangedtoptobottomlabeledvariableinputatleastone,type1fixedinput-atleastone,andtype2fixedinputs-whenrequired.Theseconddiagramhasthreeblocks.AblocklabeledlongrunislinkedtotwoboxesarrangedtoptobottomlabeledvariableinputsandType2fixedinput-whenrequired.Theboxesvariableinputatleastone,type1fixedinput-atleastoneislinkedtothevariableinputsboxofalongrundiagram.Thetextbelowreadsasfollows:Type1fixedinput:Prohibitivelycostlytoadjustusageintheshortrun;becomevariableinputsinthelongrun.Type2fixedinput:Lumpy,indivisibleinputforwhichtheproductionofanylevelofoutputrequiresthesamefixedamountinboththeshortrunandlongrun.*Employedonlywhenrequiredbythetechnology.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.41Figure8.3AvoidableCostsandSunkCosts

-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Thefirstdiagramhassevenblocks.Startingfromtheleftaboxlabeledshortrunislinkedtotwoboxeslabeledavoidablecostsandsunkcosts.TheavoidablecostislinkedtotwoboxeslabeledvariableinputcostsandType2fixedinputcosts.Thesunkcostsboxislinkedtotwoboxeslabeledtype1fixedinputcostandtype2fixedinputcosts.Theseconddiagramhasfiveblocks.Startingfromtheleftaboxlabeledlongrunislinkedtoavoidablecost.Theboxlabeledavoidablecostislinkedtothreeboxesarrangedtoptobottomlabeledasvariableinputcosts,Type1fixedinputcosts,andType2fixedinputcosts.Allthreeboxesattherightarelabeledasallinputcostsavoidableinthelongrun.Thetextbelowreadsasfollows:AsteriskEmployedonlywhenrequiredbytechnology.Type2fixedinputcostsareeithersunkoravoidableintheshortrunandwillalwaysbeavoidableinthelongrun.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.42Figure8.4Total,Average,andMarginalProducts(CapitalFixedat2units)

-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.ThegraphistitledPanelA.Theverticalaxisislabeledastotalproductanditrangesfrom0to350inincrementsof50units.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledasunitsoflaboranditrangesfrom0to10inincrementsof1unit.Tenpointsareplottedat(1,52),(2,112),(3,170),(4,220),(5,258),(6,286),(7,304),(8,314),(9,318),andendat(10,314).Asmoothcurvebeginsattheorigin,labeledasthetotalproduct(Kbarequals2),andpassesthroughthementionedpoints.Notethatthevaluesmentionedaboveareapproximate.ThegraphistitledPanelB.Theverticalaxisislabeledasaverageandmarginalproductsanditrangesfromnegative10to60inincrementsof10units.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledasunitsoflaboranditrangesfrom0to10inincrementsof1unit.AcurvelabeledMarginalproduct(Kbarequals2),beginsat(1,52),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(2,60),(3,58),(4,50),(5,38),(6,28),(7,18),(8,10),(9,4),and(10,negative4).Anothercurvelabeledaverageproduct(Kbarequals2),beginsat(1,52),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(2,56),(3,56.7),(4,55),(5,51.6),(6,47.7),(7,43.4),(8,39.3),(9,35.3),andendat(10,31.4).Notethatthevaluesmentionedaboveareapproximate.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.43Figure8.5ShiftsinTotal,Average,andMarginalProductCurves

-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.PanelA:ThegraphplotstheoutputagainstthelaborexplainingtheshiftinthetotalproductwhenKincreases.ThegraphistitledPanelA.Theverticalaxisislabeledasoutput,Q,anditrangesfrom0to500inincrementsof100units.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledaslabor,L,anditrangesfrom0to10inincrementsof1unit.Acurvelabeledtotalproduct(Kbarequals2),beginsat(0,0),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(1,52),(2,112),(3,170),(4,220),(5,258),(6,286),(7,304),(8,314),(9,318),andendat(10,314).Anothercurvelabeledtotalproduct(Kbarequals3),beginsat(0,0),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(1,74),(2,162),(3,247),(4,325),(5,390),(6,425),(7,453),(8,474),(9,488),andendat(10,492).Notethatthevaluesmentionedaboveareapproximate.PanelB:ThegraphplotsthemarginalandaverageproductsagainstlaborexplainingshiftsinMPandAPwhenKincreases.ThegraphistitledPanelB.Theverticalaxisislabeledasmarginalandaverageproducts,APMPanditrangesfrom0to90inincrementsof10units.ThehorizontalaxisislabeledaslaborLanditrangesfrom0to10inincrementsof1unit.AcurvelabeledMarginalproduct(Kbarequals2),beginsat(1,52),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(2,60),(3,58),(4,50),(5,38),(6,28),(7,18),(8,10),(9,4),andendat(10,negative4).Anothercurvelabeledaverageproduct(Kbarequals2),beginsat(1,52),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(2,56),(3,56.7),(4,55),(5,51.6),(6,47.7),(7,43.4),(8,39.3),(9,35.3),andendat(10,31.4).Anothercurvelabeledaverageproduct(Kbarequals3),beginsat(1,74),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(2,81),(3,82.3),(4,81.3),(5,78),(6,70.8),(7,64.7),(8,59.3),(9,54.2),andendat(10,49.2).AnothercurvelabeledMarginalproduct(Kbarequals3),beginsat(1,74),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(2,88),(3,85),(4,78),(5,65),(6,35),(7,28),(8,21),(9,14),andendat(10,4).Notethatthevaluesmentionedaboveareapproximate.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.44Figure8.7TotalCostCurves

-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Theverticalaxisislabeledascostindollarsanditrangesfrom0to40,000inincrementsof10,000units.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledasunitsofoutput,Q,anditrangesfrom0to600inincrementsof100units.AcurvelabeledTC,beginsat(0,6,000),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(100,10,000),(200,12,000),(300,15,000),(400,20,000),(500,28,000),andendat(600,40,000).AnothercurvelabeledTVC,beginsat(0,0),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(100,4,000),(200,6,000),(300,9,000),(400,14,000),(500,22,000),andendsat(600,34,000).AhorizontallinelabeledTFCbeginsat(0,6,000)andextendsrightward.Notethatthevaluesmentionedaboveareapproximate.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.45Figure8.8AverageandMarginalCostCurves

-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Theverticalaxisislabeledasaverageandmarginalcostindollarsanditrangesfrom0to120inincrementsof20units.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledasunitsofoutputanditrangesfrom0to600inincrementsof100units.AcurvelabeledATC,beginsat(100,100),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(200,60),(300,50),(400,50),(500,56),andendsat(600,66.7).AnothercurvelabeledAVC,beginsat(100,40),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(200,30),(300,30),(400,35),(500,44),andendsat(600,56.7).AnothercurvelabeledSMC,beginsat(100,40),andpassesthroughthepointslabeledat(200,20),(300,30),(400,50),(500,80),andendsat(600,120).Notethatthevaluesmentionedaboveareapproximate.Returntoparent-slidecontainingimages.46Figure8.9Short-RunAverageandMarginalCostCurves

-TextAlternativeReturntoparent-slidecontainingimages.Theverticalaxisislabeledasaverageandmarginalcostindollars.Thehorizontalaxisislabeledasoutput.Anupward-openingparaboliccurvelabeledSMCbeginsatapointneartheverticalaxisinthefirstquadrant,fallslefttoright,concaveup,reachesitslowpointdirectlyaboveQsubscript1onthex-axis.,thenriseslefttotheright,extendstowardsthetoprightcorner.AnothercurveofparabolicshapelabeledAVCbeginsatapointontheverticalaxisabovethefirstcurve,fallsleftto