英语词汇学课件 chapter 7 meaning of english wors

EnglishLexicologyChapter7TheMeaningofEnglishWords–AspectsofMeaning;ChangeofMeaningEnglishLexicologyEnglishLexicology1.Whyaremeaningsofwordshardtodefine?2.Canyounamesomenon-denotationalmeaningsofwords?3.Areeuphemismsreallyhelpfulinourcommunication?4.Whyaremetaphorandmetonymythemostbasicdevicesinmeaningshift?5.Canmeaningschangethroughbothradiationandconcatenation?PiontsforThinking01AspectsofMeaningEnglishLexicologyEnglishLexicologyAspectsofMeaningWordshavecomplexmeaningsbeyonddictionarydefinitions.Keyterms:DenotationReferenceSenseDenotational

meaningNon‑denotational

meaning(connotative,affective,stylistic,collocative)EnglishLexicology1.1DenotationandReferenceDenotation:relationshipbetweenalexemeandaclassofextra‑linguisticobjects(thesetofpotentialreferents).Reference:particular"things"awordreferstoinaspecificutterance(actualsubsetinanutterance)E.g.,"Sheheldafruitineachhand"Denotationof“fruit”:sweetediblepartofaplantcontainingseedsReferenceof“fruit”:twoactualfruits.EnglishLexicology1.2SenseandReferenceSense:internalrelationshipwithinthelanguagesystem.Example:fruithasmultiplesenses–basicmeaning,technicalmeaning(plantpart),generalmeaning(in“fruitofnature”,everythingthatgrowsandisedible),figurativemeaning(in“fruitofherwork”,result/outcome).Difference:everywordwithmeaninghassense,butnoteverywordhasreference(e.g.,but,and,yes,no,if,however).EnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningDenotationalmeaning:basicconcept,stable,cognitive/logicalmeaningE.g.,mother=femaleparentNon‑denotationalmeaning:additionalproperties–emotive,stylistic,pragmaticvalues.Fourtypesofnon-denotationalmeaning:connotative,affective,stylistic,collocative.EnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningConnotativemeaning:meaningoverandabovedenotationalmeaning.Example:homeandhouse,bothcanbedefinedconceptuallybythefeature“placeofresidenceforhumanbeings”homecarriesassociationsoffamily,love,affection,security.(connotativemeaning)EnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningcolorChineseEnglishredloyal fieryyellowroyalCowardbluecraftydepressedwhitetreacherouspureblackjustevilCulturalvariation:dragon–Chinese:power/prosperity/blessing;English:violence/evilness.Personalvariation:fatherevokesdifferentreactionsbasedonindividualexperience.EnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningAffectiveMeaning:Expressesthespeaker'sattitudeoremotion.Positiveovertones:famous,firmness,painstaking,slimNegativeovertones:notorious,obstinacy,pedantic,skinnyExclamatorywords:oh,goodness,pshaw,hurraEnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningContext‑dependent:"Themenweredrunk,aggressive..."(behavinginathreateningwayasiftofightorattacksomeone)"Asuccessfulbusinessmanhastobeaggressive."(someoneisverydeterminedtosucceedortogetwhathewants)"TheyplottedtoblowuptheWhiteHouse."(tomakeasecretplantoharmapersonororganization)"Hewasplottinganewcourse."(tomark,calculateorfollowthepositionofamovingaircraftorship)EnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningStylisticMeaningreferstovaryingdegreesofformalityandstatus;relatedtoregister,i.e,itdependsonthesituation,addresser,addresseeandtopictobediscussed.Formalityscale(informal,general,formal):sack–fire–dismissmate–friend–companionchap–man–gentlemandaddy–father–maleparentEnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningStylisticMeaning–SlangEver‑changingcolloquialwords,sociallylowerthanstandardlanguage.Examples:kickthebucket(die),cool(verygood),hot(impressive),bimbo(attractivebutunintelligent),crack(cocaine),green(USdollar).Conversations:"I'mallset."=I'mgood/ready."Dude..."=termformale."Pigout"=over‑eat."Nokidding."=Correct,Iknow.EnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningStylisticMeaning–RegionalDialectsBritish:sweets,washroomAmerican:candies,bathroomAustralian:lollies,toiletScottish:wee

lass(smallgirl)StylisticMeaning—Socialdialectsupper‑classvs.lower‑class:mackintosh–raincoat; house–home;rich–wealthy;lavatorypaper–toiletpaper;beastly–horrible,jollywell–very,tight–drunk,bate–badmood,yonks–ages,seedy–ill,

bind–problematicsituationEnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningCollocativeMeaningConsistsoftheassociationawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.Example:suspiciousasuspiciouswoman=shesuspectssomeoneasuspiciouscharacter=makesotherssuspectsomethingbadEnglishLexicology1.3DenotationalandNon-denotationalMeaningCollocativeMeaningNon‑nativeEnglishspeakersfrequentlyoverlookthecollovativemeaning.Chineselearnersuselargewithproblem,improvement,knowledge,change,mistake,cost,practice.Butnativeusageprefers:majorproblem,markedimprovement,extensiveknowledge,dramaticchange,seriousmistake,highcost,alotofpractice.EnglishLexicologyHowdoyousayit?大问题大变化大改进

大规模

大花费

大错误

TASK02ChangeofMeaningEnglishLexicologyEnglishLexicologyChangeofMeaningEverywordhasvarioussensesthatcanbeadded,removed,oraltered.Twoprocesses:Meaningdevelopment:newmeaningstaysinsamecategoryE.g.,carriage:horse‑drawn→railwaycarriageMeaningshift:literal→figurativeE.g.,sweetapple→sweetpersonEnglishLexicology2.1CausesofMeaningChange1.Extra‑linguisticCauses:Changesinspeechcommunity,economy,socialstructure,ideas,science,technology,waysoflife.Examples:car:Latincarrus(four‑wheeledwagon)→avehiclemill:corn‑grindingbuilding→textilemillplane:modestscientificcontext(e.g.,planegeometry)→aircraftEnglishLexicology2.1CausesofMeaningChangePsychologicalFactorsElevation/Degradation:Elevation:free,gentle,nobleDegradation:churl,knave,villain(neutral→immoralpersons)Cowboy:alow‑statusguywhotookcareofcows→reckless/aggressiveperson;drugstorecowboy(putsonairs)EnglishLexicology2.1CausesofMeaningChangePsychologicalFactorsRacism/Nationalism:black–frominsultingtoserious(BlackEnglish,Blackstudies,Blacknationalism)Englishnationalbias:takeFrenchleave,pardonmyFrench,Dutchuncle,Dutchauction,DutchcourageEnglishLexicology2.1CausesofMeaningChangePsychologicalFactorsTaboosandEuphemismsAvoidunpleasant/stigmatizedconcepts(death,oldage,illness,sexuality).Euphemisms:passaway(die); seniorcitizen(oldperson)terminatewithextremeprejudice(murder)tomakelove,sleepingtogether(havesex)thewoman'scomplaint(menstruation);self‑abuse(masturbation)EnglishLexicology2.1CausesofMeaningChangeYoungPeoplearewillingtoacceptandcreatenewmeanings.Examples:blingbling:flashy/expensivejewelleryhella:very(e.g.,"BradPittishellagood‑looking")hookup:getromanticallyinvolvedlaters:seeyoulaterphat:cool/good‑looking(e.g.,"CatherineZeta‑Jonesisreallyphat")EnglishLexicology2.1CausesofMeaningChange2.LinguisticCauses:Changeswithinthelanguagesystemitself.Borrowing

createssynonyms→meaningcollision:starve:OldEnglishsteorfan(toperish)→narrowedto"diefromhunger"afterdiewasborrowedfromScandinavian.pig,sheep,cattle(liveanimals)vs.pork,mutton,beef(meat)fromFrench.EnglishLexicology2.1CausesofMeaningChange2.LinguisticCauses:Addition/disappearanceofwords:tideoriginallymeant"time/season/hour/watercurrent"→retainedonly"watercurrent"aftertime,season,hourwereinvented.Shortening–singlewordretainsphrasemeaning.uniform(dress),duplicate(copy),daily(newspaper)EnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment1.GeneralizationAlsoknownasenlarging,widening,extension,expansion,orbroadeningofmeaning.awordwhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralizedorhasextendedtocoverabroaderandoftenlessdefiniteconceptExamples:arrive:"tocometoshore"→"tocome"(anywhere)place:"broadstreet"→anyarea/siteEnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment1.GeneralizationSpecifictoGeneral:butcher(goatkiller→animalkiller),manuscript(hand‑writtenscript→anyscript),pipe(musicalinstrument→anyhollowbody)ConcretetoAbstract:grasp(hold→understand),pain(fine/punishment→suffering),handicap(horse‑racebarrier→anybarrier)TechnicaltoGeneral:alibi(legalterm→excuse),feedback(computerterm→response)Propernamestocommonthings:Spencer(Earl→jacket),Sandwich(Earl→food),Wellington(Duke→boot)EnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment2.SpecificationTheoppositeofgeneralization;narrowing/restrictionofmeaning.Examples:meat:anyfood→animalfleshdeer:anybeast→acertainkindofanimalGeneraltoSpecific:stink(smell→terriblesmell),starve(die→dieofhunger),poison(drink→poisonousdrink)AbstracttoConcrete:room(space→partofbuilding),affection(emotion→gentlelove),catch(getholdof→hook)EnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment2.SpecificationCommontoSpecial:capsule(pill→aerospaceterm),acquisition(getting→financeterm),clear(makeempty→computerterm)CommonwordstoPropernouns:the

City(anycity→London'sbusinesscenter),theProphet(anywiseman→Mohammed),theCape(anycape→CapeofGoodHope)Phraseshortening:microwave(oven),Danish(pastry),silver(coin),iron(anironmachine)EnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment3.AmeliorationElevation/ascentofmeaningAword’smeaningimprovesorbecomeselevated,comingtorepresentsomethingmorefavorable.Examples:nice:ignorant→foolish→delightful/pleasantenthusiasm:abuse→positiveshrewd:evil/wicked→clevernimble:goodattakingwithoutpermission→quick/agileEnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment3.AmeliorationTitlesoraddressterms:marshal:manservantattendinghorses→highestarmyranklord:masterofhouse→baronet(aristocratictitle)knight:servant→rankbelowbaronetearl:man→countgovernor:pilot→headofastateminister:servant→headofthegovernmentdepartmentchamberlain:servant→highroyalofficialambassador:messenger→officialinforeigncountryEnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment4.PejorationDegradation,degeneration,deteriorationorcatachresisofmeaningAword’smeaningworsensordegenerates,comingtorepresentsomethinglessfavorable.Example:silly:blessed→innocent→foolishEnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment4.PejorationCommonpeople/females:villain:personinavilla→evilpersonboor:peasant→rudepersonchurl:peasant→meanpersonwench:countrygirl→prostitutehussy:housewife→womanoflowmoralsquean:woman→prostituteEnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment5.NewmeaningsNewmeaningsaddedtoexistingwords(economical,convenient).Computertechnology:virtual,hit,download,chat,stream,email,compress,bounceMusic:garage,house,jam,jungle,sampleInformal:candy(entertainingbutnotserious),crush(romanticinfatuation)EnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment6.OldmeaningsSomemeaningswhicheithertotallydisappearedfromthewordorarenolongeractiveinuse.Inthelongdevelopment,mostEnglishwordswouldloseoneortwomeanings.Obsoletemeanings(lostmeanings):merit:reward/punishmentdueodds:degreeofunlikenessplate:silvercoinpoint:physicalconditionEnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment6.OldmeaningsArchaicmeanings(old‑fashioned,nolongeractive):lie:toresidetemporarilynation:aggregationoffer:tomakeanattemptoffset:tostartremember:toremindArchaism:old-fashionedorobsoleteuseofaword.thou(singularyou)–foundinpoetry,law,religioustexts(e.g.,KingJamesBible,Shakespeare'sSonnet).EnglishLexicologyFindouthowthefollowingwordsexperiencedmeaningchangewiththehelpofanetymologydictionary.villainmanuscriptknighthandicapstarveboor ambassador catch silver alibisandwich clearTASKEnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment7.EuphemismsWordsusedtosubstituteindecent,unpleasant,rude,ortabooexpressions.Euphemismsaremostfrequentlyfoundinoccupations,socialproblems,illness/death,sex/marriageExample:lavatory→powderroom,washroom,restroom,retiringroom,ladies',gentlemen's,water‑closet,W.C.EnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment7.EuphemismsGrandjobtitles:sanitationengineer=garbagecollectorlandscapearchitect=gardenerdomesticengineer=servantplantsuperintendent=foremanchimneyconsultant=chimneysweepPoverty:low‑incomegroup,have‑nots,manofmodestmeans,negativesaver,disadvantaged.EnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment7.EuphemismsIllness:everydayblues,offcolor,undertheweather;longillness(cancer/AIDS)Death:passaway,loseone'slife,breatheone'slast,gowest,eternalsleepAging:seasoned,well‑preserved,advancedinage,pasttheirprime,seniorcitizen,elderstatesmanPregnancy:interestingcondition,delicatecondition,inthefamilyway,expecting,eatingfortwo,rehearsinglullabiesEnglishLexicology2.2TypesofMeaningDevelopment7.EuphemismsPolitics:regimechange(overthrowbyexternalforce)Business:reengineered,right‑sized,unassigned,downsizeMilitary:adjustmentofthefront(retreat),airsupport(airattack),collateraldamage(unintendeddamage)Diplomacy:frank/serious/candiddiscussion(disagree),developing/undevelopedcountries(poor)EnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift1.MetaphorAnewmeaningappearsasaresultofassociationbasedonsimilaritybetweentwoobjects.E.g.,box“asmallseparateenclosureformingapartofthetheatre”hasdevelopedonthebasisofitsformermeaning“arectangularcontainerusedforpackingorstoringthings”.EnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift1.MetaphorHumanbody→objects:head:ofcane,arrow,bedmouth:ofriver,pocket,bottletooth:ofsaw,rake,geareye:ofpotato,hookandneedleAnimals/plants→objects:wingchair,wingsofanairplane,thewingsofastage,goosenecklamp,harelips,nutofascrew,rootofhair,stemofglass,afamilytree,shoetreeEnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift1.MetaphorConcrete→Abstract:branch(limb→fieldofscience)bar(horse‑racedifficulty→barrier)stage(platform→theatre/drama)Naturalmetaphors:illuminate(lightup→clarify),bug(errorincomputerlogic),mouse,windows,virusEnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift2.MetonymyAssociationbasedoncontiguity(objectsoftenappeartogether).E.g.,Hetooktothebottle.(Hetooktodrinking.)Containerforcontents:bottle(drinking),bowl(rice/foodinthebowl),kettle(water),wardrobe(clothesthatsomeonehas)Commonfunction:armsofchair,footofbed,legoftable,goodeyefordistance,silvertongue,goodnoseEnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift2.MetonymyMaterialfortheobjects:copper(coinmadeofcopperorbronze),silver(silvercoinsorsilvermoney),iron(aheavyobjectwithahandleontopformakingclothingandclothsmooth);Locationfororganization:WhiteHouse,DowningStreet,HollywoodGeographical/propernames:China(porcelain),tweed(river),cheviot(hills)EnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift2.MetonymyCafélanguage:"Thehamsandwichwantshiscoffeenow.""Which'sbeefpie?""Theomeletleftwithoutpaying."Frozenmetonymies:Meaningsofthewordsarecompletelyreplacedbytheirmetonymicmeaningsthattheiroriginalmeaningsareabandoned.paper(papyrus),book(boc),tally(talea).EnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift3.SynaesthesiaOnesensorystimulusmayevokeastimulusinadifferentsensoryorgan.Typicallyatworkwithadjectives.Example:sweetmelody(taste→hearing)Othermeaningsofsweet:pleasing(sweetsmell),lovely(sweetsight),delicate/skilful(sweettouch)EnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift3.SynaesthesiaSharpacrossfivesenses:taste:sharppepper(havingaslightlybittertaste)smell:sharpsmell(irritatingthenose)hearing:sharpwords(severe,angryandcriticizing)sight:sharpeyes(observant)touch:sharpwind(coldandsevere)EnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift4.SynecdocheThesubstitutionofthepartforthewholeorthewholeforthepart.Sometimesregardedasaspecialkindofmetonymy.Wholeforpart:Useyourheadtofigureitout.(brain)Michiganjustpassedalawaddressingthisproblem.(thegovernmentofMichigan)Partforwhole:Theshipwaslostwithallhandsonboard.(sailors)Hisparentsboughthimanewsetofwheels.(car)mouths=hungrypeople,whitehair=elderlyperson,press=newsmediaEnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift5.OnomatopoeiaAwordthatimitatesthesounditisdescribing.Twomainsources:Soundsuggestsconsequencesoranimalnoises.Sound→meaning:crack:soundofbreaking→narrowspacebump:soundofhitting→raisedskinareasplash:liquidsound→markmadebysplashingEnglishLexicology2.3MeaningShift5.OnomatopoeiaAnimalnoises:moo(cow),mew(cat),coo(pigeon),bow‑wow(dog),quack(duck),cackle(hen),hum(bee),squeak(mouse),hiss(snake)DifferentlanguageshavedifferentanimalsoundsE.g.,dog:Englishbow‑wow,Chinesewōu‑wōu,Germanwauwau,Japanesewanwan,ArabichawhawEnglishLexicologyThefollowingitalicizedwordsallexperiencedm