国外组织行为学课件 皮尔森 ch08

Chapter 8 / Slide 1 Chapter 8 Social Influence, Socialization, and Culture 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 2 Learning Objectives Understand the difference between information dependence and effect dependence. Differentiate compliance, identification, and internalization as motives for social conformity. Describe the socialization process and the stages of organizational socialization. Describe the implications of unrealistic expectations and the psychological contract for socialization. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 3 Learning Objectives Describe the main methods of socialization and how newcomers can be proactive in their socialization. Define organizational culture and discuss the contributors to a culture. Discuss the assets and liabilities of strong organizational cultures. Describe how to diagnose an organizational culture. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 4 Social Influence in Organizations In many social settings, and especially in groups, people are highly dependent on others. This dependence sets the stage for influence to occur. Two kinds of dependence are information dependence and effect dependence. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 5 Information Dependence Reliance on others for information about how to think, feel, and act. Information dependence gives others the opportunity to influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions via the signals they send to us. The effects of social information can be very strong, often exerting as much or more influence over others as objective reality. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 6 Effect Dependence Reliance on others due to their capacity to provide rewards and punishment. The group frequently has a vested interest in how individual members think and act. Group members desire the approval of the group. These circumstances promote effect dependence. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 7 Social Influence in Action One of the most obvious consequences of information and effect dependence is the tendency for group members to conform to the social norms that have been established by the group. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 8 Motives for Social Conformity The motives for social conformity vary across situations and can be classified as follows: Compliance Identification Internalization 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 9 Compliance Conformity to a social norm prompted by the desire to acquire rewards or avoid punishment. Compliance is the simplest, most direct motive for conformity to group norms. It primarily involves effect dependence. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 10 Identification Conformity to a social norm prompted by perceptions that those who promote the norm are attractive or similar to oneself. Information dependence is especially important. An imitation process is involved in which established members serve as models for the behaviour of others. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 11 Internalization Conformity to a social norm prompted by true acceptance of the beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the norm. Conformity occurs because it is seen as right. Conformity is due to internal, rather than external forces. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 12 The Subtle Power of Compliance Simple compliance can set the stage for more complete involvement with organizational norms and roles. The process through which this occurs in organizations is known as organizational socialization. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 13 Organizational Socialization Socialization is the process by which people learn the attitudes, knowledge, and behaviours that are necessary to function in a group or organization. It is a learning process in which new members must acquire knowledge, change their attitudes, and perform new behaviours. It is the primary means by which organizations communicate the organizations culture and values to new members. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 14 The Socialization Process 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 15 Organizational Socialization (continued) Socialization methods influence immediate or proximal outcomes which lead to more distal or longer-term outcomes. Learning during socialization involves four main content areas or domains of learning: task, role, work group, and organization. An important objective of organizational socialization is for newcomers to achieve a good fit. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 16 Person-Job and Person- Organization Fit Person-job (P-J) fit refers to the match between an employees knowledge, skills, and abilities and the requirements of a job. Person-organization (P-O) fit refers to the match between an employees personal values and the values of an organization. P-J and P-O fit are strongly influenced by the socialization process and are related to job attitudes and behaviours. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 17 Organizational Identification An important distal outcome of socialization is organizational identification. The extent to which an individual defines him- or herself in terms of the organization and what it is perceived to represent. It reflects an individuals learning and acceptance of an organizations culture. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 18 Socialization is an ongoing process that involves three stages. One of the stages occurs before entry, another immediately after entry, and the last occurs after one has been a member for some period of time. The first two stages represent hurdles for achieving passage into the third stage. Stages of Socialization 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 19 Stages of Organizational Socialization 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 20 Socialization that takes place before a person becomes a member of a particular organization. Includes formal and informal experiences. Not all anticipatory socialization is accurate and useful for the new member. Anticipatory Socialization 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 21 The new recruit encounters day-to-day reality of organizational life. Includes formal events such as orientation programs. Informal aspects include getting to know and understand the style and personality of ones boss and co-workers. If successful, the recruit will have complied with critical organizational norms and should begin to identify with experienced organizational members. Encounter 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 22 New member begins to actively manage his or her role in the organization. Might modify ones role to better serve the organization. Must balance the organizational role with non- work roles and family demands. Begins to internalize the norms and values that are prominent in the organization. Role Management 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 23 Unrealistic Expectations People entering organizations hold many expectations that are inaccurate and often unrealistically high. When they enter an organization they experience a reality shock and their expectations are not met. Newcomers who have higher met expectations have higher job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance, and job survival and lower intentions to quit. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 24 Unrealistic Expectations (continued) Why do new members often have unrealistic expectations about the organizations they join? Unrealistic expectations are a result of occupational stereotypes, the media, and recruiters who paint rosy pictures to attract job candidates to the organization. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 25 Psychological Contract Beliefs held by employees regarding the reciprocal obligations and promises between them and their organization. An employee might expect to receive bonuses and promotions in return for hard work and loyalty. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 26 Psychological Contract Breach Employee perceptions that his or her organization has failed to fulfill one or more of its promises or obligations in the psychological contract. Psychological contract breach is a common occurrence and is related to affective reactions, work attitudes, and work behaviours. Breach results in negative emotions that stem from feelings of violation and mistrust toward management. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 27 Psychological Contract Breach (continued) Why does psychological contract breach occur? Recruiter promises Newcomer information and perceptions Organizational changes Organizations need to ensure that truthful and accurate information about promises and obligations is communicated to new members. Psychological contract breach is less likely in organizations where socialization is intense. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 28 Methods of Socialization Organizations differ in terms of who does the socializing, how it is done, and how much is done. Most organizations make use of the following methods of socialization: Realistic job previews Employee orientation programs Socialization tactics Mentoring 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 29 Realistic Job Previews The provision of a balanced realistic picture of the positive and negative aspects of the job to job applicants. They provide “corrective action” to expectations at the anticipatory socialization stage. The realistic job preview process can be compared to the traditional preview process that often sets expectations too high by ignoring the negative aspects of the job. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 30 Traditional and Realistic Job Previews Compared 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 31 Realistic Job Previews: Research Evidence Realistic job previews are effective in reducing inflated expectations and turnover and improving job performance. Turnover reduction is due in part to lower expectations and increased job satisfaction. They cause those not cut out for the job or who have low P-J and P-O fit perceptions to withdraw from the application process, a process known as self-selection. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 32 Employee Orientation Programs Orientation programs are designed to introduce new employees to their job, the people they will be working with, and the organization. They also teach newcomers how to cope with stressful work situations. A Realistic Orientation Program for Entry Stress (ROPES) teach newcomers how to use cognitive and behavioural coping techniques to manage workplace stressors. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 33 Employee Orientation Programs: Research Evidence Orientation programs can have an immediate effect on learning and a lasting effect on the job attitudes and behaviours of new hires. Employees who attend orientation are more socialized in terms of their knowledge and understanding of the organization and report higher organizational commitment. Evidence of a reduction in the rate of turnover. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 34 Socialization Tactics The manner in which organizations structure the early work experiences of newcomers and individuals who are in transition from one role to another. There are six socialization tactics that consist of a bipolar continuum. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 35 Collective versus Individual Tactics When using the collective tactic, a number of new members are socialized together as a group, going through the same experiences and facing the same challenges. The individual tactic consists of socialization experiences that are tailor-made for each new member. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 36 Formal versus Informal Tactics The formal tactic involves segregating newcomers from regular organizational members and providing them with formal learning experiences. Informal tactics do not distinguish a newcomer from more experienced members and rely more on informal and on-the-job learning. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 37 Sequential versus Random Tactics With a sequential tactic, there is a clear and fixed sequence of steps or stages leading to the assumption of the role. With the random tactic, there is an ambiguous or changing sequence of events. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 38 Fixed versus Variable Tactics With a fixed tactic, there is a time table for the newcomers assumption of the new role. If the tactic is variable, there is no time frame to indicate when the socialization process ends and the newcomer assumes his or her new role. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 39 Serial versus Disjunctive Tactics The serial tactic refers to a process in which newcomers are socialized by experienced members of the organization. The disjunctive tactic refers to a socialization process where role models and experienced organization members do not groom new members or “show them the ropes.” 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 40 Investiture versus Divestiture Tactics The divestiture tactic involves experiences that are designed to humble new hires and strip away some of their initial self- confidence. Having been humbled and stripped of preconceptions, members are then ready to learn the norms of the organization. The investiture tactic affirms the incoming identity and attributes of new hires rather than denying them and stripping them away. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 41 Socialization Tactics (continued) Institutionalization socialization consists of the collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, and investiture tactics. Individualized socialization consists of the individual, informal, random, variable, disjunctive, and divestiture tactics. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 42 Socialization Tactics 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 43 Socialization Tactics (continued) Institutionalization socialization reflects a more formalized and structured program of socialization that reduces uncertainty and encourages new hires to accept organizational norms and maintain the status quo. Individualized socialization reflects a relative absence of structure that creates ambiguity and encourages new hires to question the status quo and develop their own approach to their role. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 44 Socialization Tactics (continued) Institutionalization socialization tactics are effective in promoting uniformity of behaviour. When socialization is individualized, new members are more likely to take on the particular characteristics and style of those who are socializing them uniformity is less likely. Institutionalized socialization is always followed up by some individualized socialization as the member joins his or her regular work unit. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 45 Socialization Tactics: Research Evidence Institutionalization socialization tactics have been found to be related to proximal and distal outcomes: Lower role ambiguity and conflict More positive P-J and P-O fit perceptions More positive job satisfaction and organizational commitment Lower stress and turnover A more custodial role orientation 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 46 Socialization Tactics: Research Evidence (continued) Individualized socialization tactics result in a more innovative role orientation in which new recruits might change or modify the way they perform their tasks and roles. The social tactics (serial-disjunctive and investiture-divestiture) have been found to be the most strongly related to socialization outcomes. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 47 Mentoring A mentor is an experienced or more senior person in the organization who gives a junior person special attention, such as giving advice and creating opportunities to assist him or her during the early stages of his or her career. For mentors to be effective, they must perform two types of mentor functions: Career functions Psychosocial functions 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 48 Career Functions of Mentoring The career functions of mentoring provide career-enhancing benefits and include: Sponsorship Exposure and visibility Coaching and feedback Developmental assignments 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 49 Psychosocial Functions of Mentoring The psychosocial functions of mentoring help develop the apprentices self-confidence, sense of identity, and ability to cope with emotional traumas. They include: Role modelling Provide acceptance and confirmation Counselling 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 50 Formal Mentoring Programs Mentoring relationships have often been informal without the direct involvement of the organization. With formal mentoring programs, organizations formally assign mentors to apprentices . 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 51 Women and Mentors The lack of mentors and role models is a major barrier for the career advancement of women. Cross-gender mentor-apprentice dyads are problematic for female apprentices. Mentoring is even more critical to womens career success than to mens. Organizations have begun to develop formal mentoring and networking programs for women. Exclusion from informal networks is a major roadblock to the advancement of women. 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 8 / Slide 52 Race, Ethnicity, and Mentoring Minority apprentices in cross-ethnic group mentoring relationships report less assistance, compared to those with same-race mentors. Cross-race mentoring relationships focus on the career functions of mentoring and provide less psychosocial support functions. Organizations need to do more to provide ment